Einfluss von Uracil in der DNA auf die Genexpression : die Rolle der Basen-Exzisions-Reparatur

Uracil ist eine der am häufigsten vorkommenden DNA-Basenmodifikationen, die über den Mechanismus der Basen-Exzisions-Reparatur (BER) aus dem Genom entfernt wird. Im Verlauf der Reparatur dieser Läsion durch monofunktionelle Uracil-DNA-Glykosylasen (UNG1/2, SMUG1, TDG und MBD4) entstehen AP-Läsionen und Einzelstrangbrüche. Da von beiden bekannt ist, eine Blockade der Transkription verursachen zu können, wurde in dieser Arbeit der Einfluss von Uracil und dessen Exzision auf die Expression eines Gens untersucht. Dafür wurde eine effiziente Methode entwickelt, die DNA-Basenmodifikation spezifisch in den transkribierten oder nicht-transkribierten DNA-Strang eines Reporter-Vektors einzufügen. rnIn Host cell reactivation Assays konnte gezeigt werden, dass Uracil unabhängig davon, ob es mit Adenin gepaart (U:A) oder mit Guanin (U:G) eine Fehlpaarung bildet, keine direkte Blockade der Transkriptions-Maschinerie in menschlichen Zellen auszulösen vermag. Dies kann daraus geschlossen werden, dass die Expression des Reportergens der Uracil-enthaltenen Vektoren im Vergleich zu unmodifizierten Referenz-Vektoren kurze Zeit nach der Transfektion unverändert ist. Die erst mit zunehmender Inkubationszeit in den Wirtszellen progressiv abnehmende Transkription ließ vermuten, dass die intrazelluläre Prozessierung der Läsion über die BER für die verringerte Genexpression verantwortlich ist. In der Tat bewirkte der Knockdown der BER-initiierenden UNG1/2, die Uracil aus der DNA herausschneidet und damit eine AP-Läsion generiert, eine Verringerung des negativen Effektes eines U:A-Basenpaares auf die Genexpression. Dass der Knockdown der SMUG1- oder TDG-Glykosylase hingegen keine Auswirkungen zeigte, beweist, dass UNG1/2 die Hauptglykosylase für die Exzision dieser Läsion und der Auslöser der inhibierten Transkription in HeLa-Zellen darstellt. Der Zusammenhang zwischen dem Maß des Ausschnitts einer DNA-Basenmodifikation im Verlauf der BER und einer verringerten Expression des Reportergens konnte zudem am Beispiel von 5-Hydroxymethyluracil und der für diese Läsion spezifischen SMUG1-Glykosylase nachgewiesen werden. Im Falle einer U:G-Fehlpaarung besaß weder UNG1/2 noch SMUG1 oder TDG einen Einfluss auf die Rate oder das Ausmaß der mit der Zeit abnehmenden Genexpression, was die Beteiligung einer anderen Glykosylase oder eines anderen Reparatur-Mechanismus vermuten lässt. rnDie Tatsache, dass die Stärke der Gen-Suppression unabhängig davon war, ob Uracil im transkribierten oder nicht-transkribierten DNA-Strang positioniert wurde, lässt die Mutmaßung zu, dass keine Blockade der elongierenden RNA-Polymerase, sondern vielmehr ein indirekter Mechanismus der Auslöser für die verringerte Transkription ist. Dieser Mechanismus muss unabhängig von der gut untersuchten transkriptionsgekoppelten Nukleotid-Exzisions-Reparatur erfolgen, da der Knockdown des hierfür benötigten CSB-Gens keine Auswirkungen auf die Inhibition der Genexpression der Uracil-enthaltenen Vektoren hatte. Insgesamt liefert diese Arbeit neue Erkenntnisse über den Beitrag der einzelnen Uracil-DNA-Glykosylasen zur Reparatur der DNA-Basenmodifikation Uracil in humanen Zellen und zeigt, dass die BER über einen indirekten Mechanismus die Hemmung der Genexpression verursacht.

The SOS screen in Arabidopsis: a search for functions involved in DNA metabolism

The SOS screen, as originally described by Perkins et al. (1999), was setup with the aim of identifying Arabidopsis functions that might potentially be involved in the DNA metabolism. Such functions, when expressed in bacteria, are prone to disturb replication and thus trigger the SOS response. Consistently, expression of AtRAD51 and AtDMC1 induced the SOS response in bacteria, even affecting E. coli viability. 100 SOS-inducing cDNAs were isolated from a cDNA library constructed from an Arabidopsis cell suspension that was found to highly express meiotic genes. A large proportion of these SOS+ candidates are clearly related to the DNA metabolism, others could be involved in the RNA metabolism, while the remaining cDNAs encode either totally unknown proteins or proteins that were considered as irrelevant. Seven SOS+ candidate genes are induced following gamma irradiation. The in planta function of several of the SOS-inducing clones was investigated using T-DNA insertional mutants or RNA interference. Only one SOS+ candidate, among those examined, exhibited a defined phenotype: silenced plants for DUT1 were sensitive to 5-fluoro-uracil (5FU), as is the case of the leaky dut-1 mutant in E. coli that are affected in dUTPase activity. dUTPase is essential to prevent uracil incorporation in the course of DNA replication.

Thymine hydroperoxide as a potential source of singlet molecular oxygen in DNA

The decomposition of organic hydroperoxides into peroxyl radicals is a potential source of singlet molecular oxygen [O(2) ((1)Delta(g))] in biological systems. This study shows that 5-(hydroperoxymethyl)uracil (5-HPMU), a thymine hydroperoxide within DNA, reacts with metal ions or HOCl, generating O(2) ((1)Delta(g)). Spectroscopic evidence for generation of O(2) ((1)Delta(g)) was obtained by measuring (i) the bimolecular decay, (ii) the monomolecular decay, and (iii) the observation of D(2)O enhancement of O(2) ((1)Delta(g)) production and the quenching effect of NaN(3). Moreover, the presence of O(2) ((1)Delta(g)) was unequivocally demonstrated by the direct characterization of the near-infrared light emission. For the sake of comparison, O(2) ((1)Delta(g)) derived from the H(2)O(2)/HOCl system and from the thermolysis of the N,N`-di(2,3-dihydroxypropyl)-1,4-naphthalenedipropanamide endoperoxide was also monitored. More evidence of O(2) ((1)Delta(g)) generation was obtained by chemical trapping of O(2) ((1)Delta(g)) with anthracene-9,10-divinylsulfonate (AVS) and detection of the specific AVS endoperoxide by HPLC/MS/MS. The detection by HPLC/MS of 5-(hydroxymethyl)uracil and 5-formyluracil, two thymine oxidation products generated from the reaction of 5-HPMU and Ce(4+) ions, supports the Russell mechanism. These photoemission properties and chemical trapping clearly demonstrate that the decomposition of 5-HPMU generates O(2) ((1)Delta(g)) by the Russell mechanism and point to the involvement of O(2) ((1)Delta(g)) in thymidine hydroperoxide cytotoxicity. (C) 2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Generierung und Prozessierung oxidativer DNA-Schäden

Generierung und Prozessierung oxidativer DNA Schäden --- Ziel dieser Arbeit war es, adaptive Antworten der Zellen auf einen DNA Schädigung zu untersuchen. Hierzu wurden Experimente zur Reparatur oxidierter Basen (Substrate der Basen Exzisions Reparatur (BER)) oder von Pyrimidindimeren (Substrate der Nukleotid Exzisions Reparatur (NER)) nach einer Vorbehandlung mit DNA-schädigender Agenzien durchgeführt. Die Ergebnisse zeigten, dass sowohl eine Vorbehandlung mit einer alkylierenden als auch mit einer oxidierenden Substanz zu einer adaptiven Erhöhung des zellulären Glutathionspiegels führte, die 16 h nach der Schädigung ihr Maximum erreichte. Jedoch waren die 8-oxoG Glykosylaseaktivitäten über einen Zeitraum von 18 h konstant. Diese Effekte waren unabhängig davon, ob Maus Embryofibroblasten, primäre oder p53 profiziente menschliche Zellen verwendet wurden. Die BER war ebenfalls in keiner der verschiedenen Zelllinien signifikant verbessert. Die adaptive Antwort bezüglich der Glutathionspiegel war also nicht mit einer entsprechenden Veränderung bei der DNA-Reparatur verbunden. Folglich ist die Reparatur von oxidativen DNA-Schäden durch eine vorausgehende Schädigung nicht induzierbar. Der zweite Teil der Untersuchungen zu der Reparatur beschäftigte sich mit der NER. Hierzu wurde die Reaktivierung eines mit UVB-Strahlung geschädigten Plasmids untersucht. Als Wirtszellen fungierten primäre menschliche Fibroblasten und Keratinozyten, die entweder mit UVB vorbehandelt oder ungeschädigt waren. Auch für die NER konnte keine signifikante Beschleunigung der Reparatur von Pyrimidindimeren durch eine Vorbehandlung festgestellt werden. Die Reaktivierung erfolgte ferner unabhängig vom p53-Status der Zellen, wie Versuche mit p53-siRNA zeigten. Neben der Prozessierung war die Generierung oxidativer DNA Schäden Gegenstand der Arbeit. Die verwendete Substanz Tirapazamin (TPZ) ist ein für hypoxische Zellen selektives, neues Zytostatikum und befindet sich momentan in Phase 2/3 der klinischen Prüfung. Ziel war es die von TPZ verursachten DNA Modifikationen zu charakterisieren, sowie die Toxizität und Genotoxizität zu untersuchen. Da es Hinweise auf eine Aktivierung von TPZ über eine Oxidoreduktase (OR) gab, wurden die Experimente in Wildtyp und hOR überexprimierenden Zellen durchgeführt. Die Quantifizierung der verursachten DNA-Modifikationen zeigte, dass der von TPZ verursachte Schaden in Zellen mit hOR erhöht war. Das erhaltene Schadensprofil der durch TPZ verursachten DNA-Modifikationen war dem Schadensprofil von durch Gamma-Strahlung intrazellulär verursachten Hydroxylradikalen sehr ähnlich. Da es nach der Aktivierung von TPZ durch eine OR zu einer Abspaltung von Hydroxylradikalen kommt, bestätigte dies den vermuteten Mechanismus. Weitere Untersuchungen mit t-Butanol, einem Hydroxylradikal Fänger, ergaben eine verminderte DNA-Schädigung, was ebenfalls für eine DNA-Schädigung durch Hydroxylradikale spricht. Untersuchungen zur Mutagenität zeigten das die Mutationsrate in Zellen mit hOR um das 4 fache erhöht ist. Erstaunlich war jedoch, dass der im gleichen Ausmaß von Gamma-Strahlung verursachte DNA-Schaden für die beobachtete Toxizität dieser verantwortlich war, während bei TPZ unter den gleichen Bedingungen keine Toxizität vorlag. Erklärt werden könnte die erhöhte Toxizität und Mutagenität durch so genannte geclusterte DNA-Schäden, die von Gamma-Strahlen, nicht jedoch von TPZ gebildet werden. Nach einer verlängerten Inkubation wurde sowohl für die Toxizität als auch für die Genotoxizität erneut ein verstärkender Effekt durch die OR bestätigt. Überraschend war weiterhin die von der OR unabhängige Generierung von Doppelstrangbrüchen, für die demnach ein grundsätzlich anderer Mechanismus, wie zum Beispiel eine direkte Interaktion mit der Topoisomerase II, angenommen werden muss.

Recent advances in cancer therapy targeting proteins involved in DNA double-strand break repair

Damage to genetic material represents a persistent and ubiquitous threat to genomic stability. Once DNA damage is detected, a multifaceted signaling network is activated that halts the cell cycle, initiates repair, and in some instances induces apoptotic cell death. In this article, we will review DNA damage surveillance networks, which maintain the stability of our genome, and discuss the efforts underway to identify chemotherapeutic compounds targeting the core components of DNA double-strand breaks (DSB) response pathway. The majority of tumor cells have defects in maintaining genomic stability owing to the loss of an appropriate response to DNA damage. New anticancer agents are exploiting this vulnerability of cancer cells to enhance therapeutic indexes, with limited normal tissue toxicity. Recently inhibitors of the checkpoint kinases Chk1 and Chk2 have been shown to sensitize tumor cells to DNA damaging agents. In addition, the treatment of BRCA1- or BRCA2-deficient tumor cells with poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) inhibitors also leads to specific tumor killing. Due to the numerous roles of p53 in genomic stability and its defects in many human cancers, therapeutic agents that restore p53 activity in tumors are the subject of multiple clinical trials. In this article we highlight the proteins mentioned above and catalog several additional players in the DNA damage response pathway, including ATM, DNA-PK, and the MRN complex, which might be amenable to pharmacological interventions and lead to new approaches to sensitize cancer cells to radio- and chemotherapy. The challenge is how to identify those patients most receptive to these treatments.

Involvement of Exo1b in DNA damage-induced apoptosis

Apoptosis is essential for the maintenance of inherited genomic integrity. During DNA damage-induced apoptosis, mechanisms of cell survival, such as DNA repair are inactivated to allow cell death to proceed. Here, we describe a role for the mammalian DNA repair enzyme Exonuclease 1 (Exo1) in DNA damage-induced apoptosis. Depletion of Exo1 in human fibroblasts, or mouse embryonic fibroblasts led to a delay in DNA damage-induced apoptosis. Furthermore, we show that Exo1 acts upstream of caspase-3, DNA fragmentation and cytochrome c release. In addition, induction of apoptosis with DNA-damaging agents led to cleavage of both isoforms of Exo1. The cleavage of Exo1 was mapped to Asp514, and shown to be mediated by caspase-3. Expression of a caspase-3 cleavage site mutant form of Exo1, Asp514Ala, prevented formation of the previously observed fragment without any affect on the onset of apoptosis. We conclude that Exo1 has a role in the timely induction of apoptosis and that it is subsequently cleaved and degraded during apoptosis, potentially inhibiting DNA damage repair.

Exo1 plays a major role in DNA end resection in humans and influences double-strand break repair and damage signaling decisions

The resection of DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) to generate ssDNA tails is a pivotal event in the cellular response to these breaks. In the two-step model of resection, primarily elucidated in yeast, initial resection by Mre11-CtIP is followed by extensive resection by two distinct pathways involving Exo1 or BLM/WRN-Dna2. However, resection pathways and their exact contributions in humans in vivo are not as clearly worked out as in yeast. Here, we examined the contribution of Exo1 to DNA end resection in humans in vivo in response to ionizing radiation (IR) and its relationship with other resection pathways (Mre11-CtIP or BLM/WRN). We find that Exo1 plays a predominant role in resection in human cells along with an alternate pathway dependent on WRN. While Mre11 and CtIP stimulate resection in human cells, they are not absolutely required for this process and Exo1 can function in resection even in the absence of Mre11-CtIP. Interestingly, the recruitment of Exo1 to DNA breaks appears to be inhibited by the NHEJ protein Ku80, and the higher level of resection that occurs upon siRNA-mediated depletion of Ku80 is dependent on Exo1. In addition, Exo1 may be regulated by 53BP1 and Brca1, and the restoration of resection in BRCA1-deficient cells upon depletion of 53BP1 is dependent on Exo1. Finally, we find that Exo1-mediated resection facilitates a transition from ATM- to ATR-mediated cell cycle checkpoint signaling. Our results identify Exo1 as a key mediator of DNA end resection and DSB repair and damage signaling decisions in human cells.

Role of Human Topoisomerase I in DNA Repair and Apoptosis

Human topoisomerase I (htopoI) is an enzyme that up to now was believed to function mainly in the removal of torsional stress generated during transcription and replication. In 1998, it was found that htopoI might play another important role in the cellular response to DNA damage -- the so-called htopoI damage response. Since this initial discovery, many studies have suggested that the htopoI damage response is involved in DNA repair as well as in apoptosis. Here we discuss the earliest as well as the latest results in this field. Combining all of the published and as yet unpublished results, we suggest and discuss a model of how htopoI may function during DNA repair and apoptosis. Furthermore, numerous results show that the htopoI damage response is not a spontaneous event, but is strictly regulated by cellular signalling pathways. We discuss which pathways may be involved and how the htopoI damage response is activated. Although the htopoI damage response was discovered several years ago, research in this area is just beginning. The future will surely bring more clarity regarding the precise mechanism behind the involvement of htopoI in DNA repair and apoptosis, as well as its implications for a broader understanding of how the human organism ensures genomic stability.

Comparison of Interproton Distances in DNA Models with Nuclear Overhauser Enhancement Data

The conformational flexibility inherent in the polynucleotide chain plays an important role in deciding its three-dimensonal structure and enables it to undergo structural transitions in order to fulfil all its functions. Following certain stereochemical guidelines, both right and left handed double-helical models have been built in our laboratory and they are in reasonably good agreement with the fibre patterns for various polymorphous forms of DNA. Recently, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy has become an important technique for studying the solution conformation and polymorphism of nucleic acids. Several workers have used 1H nuclear magnetic resonance nuclear Overhauser enhancement measurements to estimate the interproton distances for the various DNA oligomers and compared them with the interproton distances for particular models of A and Β form DNA. In some cases the solution conformation does not seem to fit either of these models. We have been studying various models for DNA with a view to exploring the full conformational space allowed for nucleic acid polymers. In this paper, the interproton distances calculated for the different stereochemically feasible models of DNA are presented and they are compared and correlated against those obtained from 1Η nuclear magnetic resonance nuclear Overhauser enhancement measurements of various nucleic acid oligomers.

A sensitive immunochemical method for detecting 5mC in DNA fragments

Abstract is not available.

Recent developments in DNA evidence

DNA evidence has made a significant contribution to criminal investigations in Australia and around the world since it was widely adopted in the 1990s (Gans & Urbas 2002). The direct matching of DNA profiles, such as comparing one obtained from a crime scene with one obtained from a suspect or database, remains a widely used technique in criminal investigations. A range of new DNA profiling techniques continues to be developed and applied in criminal investigations around the world (Smith & Urbas 2012). This paper is the third in a series by the Australian Institute of Criminology (AIC) on DNA evidence. The first, published in 1990 when the technology was in its relative infancy, outlined the scientific background for DNA evidence, considered early issues such as scientific reliability and privacy and described its application in early criminal cases (Easteal & Easteal 1990). The second, published in 2002, expanded on the scientific background and discussed a significant number of Australian cases in a 12-year period, illustrating issues that had arisen in investigations, at trial and in the use of DNA in the review of convictions and acquittals (Gans & Urbas 2002). There have been some significant developments in the science and technology behind DNA evidence in the 13 years since 2002 that have important implications for law enforcement and the legal system. These are discussed through a review of relevant legal cases and the latest empirical evidence. This paper is structured in three sections. The first examines the scientific techniques and how they have been applied in police investigations, drawing on a number of recent cases to illustrate them. The second considers empirical research evaluating DNA evidence and databases and the impact DNA has on investigative and court outcomes. The final section discusses significant cases that establish legal precedent relating to DNA evidence in criminal trials where significant issues have arisen or new techniques have been applied that have not yet been widely discussed in the literature. The paper concludes by reflecting on implications for policy and practice.

Reversal of handedness in DNA: A stable link between RU and LZ helices

Two types of left-handed zig-zag (LZ) helices were obtained following stereochemical guideline. They are referred to as LZ1 and LZ2 helices. LZ1 helices have conformations similar to those found in the single crystals of d(C-G)3 and d(C-G)25,6. Z-character is more prominent in LZ2 than in LZ1 helix. The conformations of a stable link between RU and LZ helical fragments are given. The link involves inverted stacking arrangement of the bases: a characteristic feature of all RL models proposed by us

The 5-Methyl Group in Thymine Dynamically Influences the Structure of A-Tracts in DNA at the Local and Global Level

DNA sequences containing a stretch of several A:T basepairs without a 5'-TA-3' step are known as A-tracts and have been the subject of extensive investigation because of their unique structural features such as a narrow minor groove and their crucial role in several biological processes. One of the aspects under investigation has been the influence of the 5-methyl group of thymine on the properties of A-tracts. Detailed molecular dynamics simulation studies of the sequences d(CGCAAAUUUGCG) and d(CGCAAATTTGCG) indicate that the presence of the 5-methyl group in thymine increases the frequency of a narrow minor groove conformation, which could facilitate its specific recognition by proteins, and reduce its susceptibility to cleavage by DNase I. The bias toward a wider minor groove in the absence of the thymine 5-methyl group is a static structural feature. Our results also indicate that the presence of the thymine 5-methyl group is necessary for calibrating the backbone conformation and the basepair and dinucleotide step geometry of the core A-tract as well as the flanking CA/TG and the neighboring GC/GC steps, as observed in free and protein-bound DNA. As a consequence, it also fine-tunes the curvature of the longer DNA fragment in which the A-tract is embedded.