Mechanisms of arsenic hyperaccumulation in Pteris vittata. Uptake kinetics, interactions with phosphate, and arsenic speciation

The mechanisms of arsenic (As) hyperaccumulation in Pteris vittata, the first identified As hyperaccumulator, are unknown. We investigated the interactions of arsenate and phosphate on the uptake and distribution of As and phosphorus (P), and As speciation in P. vittata. In an 18-d hydroponic experiment with varying concentrations of arsenate and phosphate, P. vittata accumulated As in the fronds up to 27,000 mg As kg(-1) dry weight, and the frond As to root As concentration ratio varied between 1.3 and 6.7. Increasing phosphate supply decreased As uptake markedly, with the effect being greater on root As concentration than on shoot As concentration. Increasing arsenate supply decreased the P concentration in the roots, but not in the fronds. Presence of phosphate in the uptake solution decreased arsenate influx markedly, whereas P starvation for 8 d increased the maximum net influx by 2.5-fold. The rate of arsenite uptake was 10% of that for arsenate in the absence of phosphate. Neither P starvation nor the presence of phosphate affected arsenite uptake. Within 8 h, 50% to 78% of the As taken up was distributed to the fronds, with a higher translocation efficiency for arsenite than for arsenate. In fronds, 49% to 94% of the As was extracted with a phosphate buffer (pH 5.6). Speciation analysis using high-performance liquid chromatography-inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy showed that >85% of the extracted As was in the form of arsenite, and the remaining mostly as arsenate. We conclude that arsenate is taken up by P. vittata via the phosphate transporters, reduced to arsenite, and sequestered in the fronds primarily as As(III).

Variation in arsenic accumulation - Hyperaccumulation in ferns and their allies

A range of fern species (45) and their allies, Equisetum (5) and Selaginella (2) species and Psilotum nudum were screened for their ability to hyperaccumulate arsenic, to develop a phylogenetic understanding of this phenomenon. A number of varieties (5) of a known arsenic hyperaccumulator Pteris cretica were additionally included in this study. This study is the first to report members of the Pteris genus that do not hyperaccumulate arsenic, Pteris straminea and tremula. A phylogenetic basis for arsenic accumulation in ferns was investigated. Some orders can accumulate more arsenic than others. Although members of the Equisetales and Blechnales did not hyperaccumulate arsenic, they still accumulated relatively high levels in their fronds, approaching 100 mg kg^-1 when grown on a soil dosed with 100 mg kg^-1 arsenic. Arsenic hyperaccumulation was identified as a phenomenon at the extreme range of fern arsenic accumulation. Ferns that exhibit arsenic hyperaccumulation arrived relatively late in terms of fern evolution, as this character is not exhibited by primitive ferns or their allies.

Arsenic uptake and metabolism in arsenic resistant and nonresistant plant species

Elevation of arsenic levels in soils causes considerable concern with respect to plant uptake and subsequent entry into wildlife and human food chains, Arsenic speciation in the environment is complex, existing in both inorganic and organic forms, with interconversion between species regulated by biotic and abiotic processes. To understand and manage the risks posed by soil arsenic it is essential to know how arsenic is taken up by the roots and metabolized within plants. Some plant species exhibit phenotypic variation in response to arsenic species, which helps us to understand the toxicity of arsenic and the way in which plants have evolved arsenic resistances. This knowledge, for example, could be used produce plant cultivars that are more arsenic resistant or that have reduced arsenic uptake. This review synthesizes current knowledge on arsenic uptake, metabolism and toxicity for arsenic resistant and nonresistant plants, including the recently discovered phenomenon of arsenic hyperaccumulation in certain fern species. The reasons why plants accumulate and metabolize arsenic are considered in an evolutionary context. © New Phytologist.

Mechanistic study of arsenic uptake, transformation and tolerance in arsenic hyperaccumulator Pteris vittata

Pteris vittata, the first reported arsenic hyperaccumulating plant, is potentially used in phytoremediation of arsenic, as it can accumulate up to 2.3% of arsenic in its fronds. In this study, the mechanisms of arsenic tolerance, uptake and transformation were studied in the plant. Arsenic species were analyzed by HPLC-AFS. Results showed that arsenic was mainly accumulated in leaflets, and inorganic arsenate and arsenite were only species in P. vittata. Arsenite was the predominant species in leaflets, whereas arsenate was the predominant species in roots. Arsenic induced the synthesis of thiol containing compounds in P. vittata. As-induced thiol was purified by a novel method: covalent chromatography following preparative HPLC. The purified thiol was characterized as a phytochelatin with two units (PC2). ^ In P. vittata, enhanced tolerance likely results from unusual intracellular detoxification mechanisms. Although PC-dependent sequestration of arsenic into vacuoles is essential for nonhyperaccumulators, this sequestration is not the major arsenic tolerance mechanisms in this arsenic hyperaccumulator. PC-independent sequestration of arsenic is likely the major arsenic tolerance mechanism. PC-dependent arsenic detoxification is probably a supplement to this major mechanism. ^ Interactions between arsenic and phosphate were studied. Under hydroponic condition, arsenic supply decreased the concentrations of phosphate in roots. In soil, arsenic increased the concentrations of phosphate in roots. Arsenic concentrations in rachises and leaflets were not affected by arsenic supply in either hydroponic or soil system. Phosphate decreased arsenic accumulation in roots, rachises and leaflets in the hydroponic system. ^ The uptake kinetics of arsenate, arsenite, monomethyl arsinic acid (MMA), dimethyl arsonic acid, and phosphate were studied in P. vittata. Phosphate uptake systems in Pteris vittata cannot distinguish phosphate and As(V), resulting in As hyperaccumulation. Arsenic hyperaccumulation in this plant is an inevitable consequence during phosphate acquisition. Arsenate, arsenite and MMA are transported via the phosphate uptake systems. The co-transport of arsenite/phosphate and MMA/phosphate is reported for the first time in plants. These unique phenomena are useful for understanding arsenic hyperaccumulation and the evolution of this capacity in P. vittata. ^

植物对重金属砷和镉胁迫适应的分子机理初探

随着现代工业的发展，重金属污染日趋严重。重金属污染引发的环境和健康问题在许多国家都有报道，我国的重金属污染状况也不容乐观。土壤和水体中的重金属污染可以通过食物链进入人体，对人类健康造成很大的危害，如诱发癌症 和畸胎等。 植物修复是一种利用植物对重金属或有机污染物的超富集能力清除或减低污染的环境生物技术。植物修复的生物学机制的研究为这项技术走向实用化奠定了基础。植物修复近期的进展可能来自于可更有效地富集重金属的植物品种的选择、土壤条件的改善等;但长远看来，植物修复技术的巨大进步将取决于新的可更好地抵抗重金属或降解有机毒物的基因的鉴定和克隆，并通过转基因技术创造一批新的植物品种，如可迅速大量富集重金属的高生物量的用作环境净化的植物，以及可排拒重金属吸收的粮食、蔬菜和水果等作物。 本研究针对砷污染的植物修复机制，以超富集砷的凤尾蕨属植物——蜈蚣草为试材取得了如下进展： 1． 以从砷污染地区采集的蜈蚣草（Pteris vittataL．）为植物材料，利用抑制消减杂交(SSH)分离了经砷诱导处理与其对照间表达有差异的cDNA片段，以期得到与砷富集密切相关的基因。其中筛选到的一个cDNA片段与ABC transporter (ATP-binding cassette transporter)有较高的同源性。通过RACE方法对该基因进行了克隆，并进行了初步的结构和功能分析。结果表明所获得的PvABCTl (Accession No. AY496966)为一全长cDNA，长度为2165 bp，其中开读框架为1791 bp，编码597个氨基酸。该基因所编码的蛋白中含有2个ABC transporter特性结构域，1个ATP-binding cassette和2个ATP/GTP结合位点(P-loop)，没有明显的跨膜区。 2． 对蜈蚣草在砷胁迫下PvABCT1基因的表达模式进行了研究。转录水平分析表明PvABCT1的表达受砷的诱导。进一步通过PvABCTl-GFP融合基因在洋葱细胞中的表达进行亚细胞定位，结果显示该基因可能定位于细胞质中。 3． 为了研究所克隆的PvABCT1基因的功能，本研究构建了PvABCT1的酵母表达载体，把该基因转入因ACR3基因缺失而对砷敏感的酵母突变株。酵母功能互补实验表明PvABCT1不仅不能与ACR3基因功能互补，反而使酵母对砷的敏感性增加，同时酵母细胞中的砷含量较未转化的酵母细胞增加。即在转入PvABCT1后，酵母细胞吸收了更多的砷。这暗示该基因与蜈蚣草中砷的高吸收有关。 针对食品重金属污染问题，本研究探讨了减低蔬菜对重金属吸收的方法及其 作用机理，取得了如下进展： 1．研究了钙离子和镧离子对镉离子胁迫下生菜种子萌发和植株生长的影响，结果表明在种子萌发时外施4 mM CaCI2或0.04 mg/L La(N03)3均可提高生菜对重金属镉的抗性。 2．通过检测0.5 mM CdCl2胁迫下生菜植株中的镉含量以及外施钙离子或镧离子后相应的镉含量，发现4 mM CaCl2可以增加镉胁迫下生菜植株中镉的积累;而0.04 mg/L La(N03)3可以降低镉胁迫下生菜植株中镉的积累。 3．对生菜中植物络合素合酶基因进行了克隆，通过RT-PCR分析以及植物络合素( phytochelatins，PCs)的检测，探讨了外施钙离子或镧离子对镉胁迫下生菜植株中植物络合素合酶基因在转录水平的表达量、植物络合素含量以及镉的积累三者之间的关系。结果表明：4 mM CaCl2可以提高镉胁迫下生菜植株中植物络合素合酶基因在转录水平的表达以及植物络合素的含量，增加镉的积累;而0.04 mg/L La(N03)3虽然同样可以提高植物络合素合酶基因在转录水平的表达以及植物络合素的含量，却能降低镉胁迫下生菜植株中镉的积累。这暗示外施钙离子可以促进用于重金属污染环境修复的植物对重金属的吸收，而外施镧离子可以用于降低叶菜类蔬菜中重金属镉的积累。

砷超富集植物蜈蚣草(Pteris vittata L.)中砷解毒机制的研究

砷是一种具有致癌、致畸、致突变的有毒元素，在地表的含量本来很低。然而，随着现代社会的发展和工业活动的增加导致砷污染日趋严重。土壤和水体中的砷污染可以通过食物链进入人体，对人类的健康造成极大的危害。植物修复是一种利用植物对污染物的超富集能力来清除或减低污染的新型环境生物技术。植物修复的实际应用依赖于超富集植物的发现和超富集机制的阐明，特别是砷解毒过程(砷的吸收、还原和区域化)的研究及相关基因的克隆。砷超富集植物蜈蚣草(Pteris vittata L.)中砷解毒机制的阐明将为砷污染的植物修复及新型工程植物的研发提供理论基础。 本论文以蜈蚣草为试材，针对蜈蚣草的砷解毒机制取得了如下研究进展： 1.以砷超富集植物蜈蚣草为材料，建立了一个适于研究蜈蚣草砷吸收和解毒机制的新系统—愈伤组织悬浮培养体系。首次证明蜈蚣草愈伤组织与其孢子体及配子体一样具有对砷的抗性和砷超富集的能力。 2.以蜈蚣草愈伤组织为材料，通过比较亚砷酸盐、砷酸盐和二甲基胂酸盐对蜈蚣草和拟南芥植物毒性的差异，表明砷的还原可能是蜈蚣草对砷解毒的重要机制之一而砷的甲基化对蜈蚣草的砷解毒作用甚微。 3.以蜈蚣草愈伤组织为材料，通过对砷在蜈蚣草愈伤组织细胞中的亚细胞定位，首次直接证明植物液泡对砷具有非常明显的区隔化作用。暗示区隔化作用在蜈蚣草对砷的解毒过程中发挥着重要的作用。 4.通过测定蜈蚣草愈伤组织对不同化学态的砷处理下抗氧化物质的变化发现酸溶性巯基在蜈蚣草砷解毒中也发挥着重要作用。 5.以蜈蚣草愈伤组织为材料，发现磷和砷的吸收在高浓度范围下（﹥0.2 mM）存在明显的协同效应。对蜈蚣草高亲和磷酸盐转运蛋白基因－PvPHT基因功能的初步分析则表明PvPHT参与了蜈蚣草对磷和砷的吸收过程。

Arsenic uptake and metabolism in plants

Arsenic (As) is an element that is nonessential for and toxic to plants. Arsenic contamination in the environment occurs in many regions, and, depending on environmental factors, its accumulation in food crops may pose a health risk to humans.Recent progress in understanding the mechanisms of As uptake and metabolism in plants is reviewed here. Arsenate is taken up by phosphate transporters. A number of the aquaporin nodulin26-like intrinsic proteins (NIPs) are able to transport arsenite,the predominant form of As in reducing environments. In rice (Oryza sativa), arsenite uptake shares the highly efficient silicon (Si) pathway of entry to root cells and efflux towards the xylem. In root cells arsenate is rapidly reduced to arsenite, which is effluxed to the external medium, complexed by thiol peptides or translocated to shoots. One type of arsenate reductase has been identified, but its in planta functions remain to be investigated. Some fern species in the Pteridaceae family are able to hyperaccumulate As in above-ground tissues. Hyperaccumulation appears to involve enhanced arsenate uptake, decreased arsenite-thiol complexation and arsenite efflux to the external medium, greatly enhanced xylem translocation of arsenite, and vacuolar sequestration of arsenite in fronds. Current knowledge gaps and future research directions are also identified.

A Raman spectroscopic study of bukovskýite Fe2(AsO4)(SO4)(OH)•7H2O-a mineral phase with a significant role in arsenic migration

The Raman spectrum of bukovskýite, Fe3+2(OH)(SO4)(AsO4)•7H2O has been studied and compared with the Raman spectrum of an amorphous gel containing specifically Fe, As and S elements and is understood as an intermediate product in the formation of bukovskýite. Observed bands are assigned to the stretching and bending vibrations of (SO4)2- and (AsO4)3- units, stretching and bending vibrations and librational modes of hydrogen bonded water molecules, stretching and bending vibrations of hydrogen bonded (OH)- ions and Fe3+-(O,OH) units. Approximate range of O-H...O hydrogen bond lengths is inferred from the Raman spectra. Raman spectra of crystalline bukovskýite and of the amorphous gel differ in that the bukovskýite spectrum is more complex, observed bands are sharp, the degenerate bands of (SO4)2- and (AsO4)3- are split and more intense. Lower wavenumbers of  H2O bending vibration in the spectrum of the amorphous gel may indicate the presence of weaker hydrogen bonds compared with those in bukovskýite.

Removal of toxic arsenic and antimony from groundwater Spiro Tunnel Bulkhead in Park City Utah using colloidal iron hydroxide : comparison with reverse ssmosis

Verification testing of two model technologies in pilot scale to remove arsenic and antimony based on reverse osmosis and chemical coagulation/filtration systems was conducted in Spiro Tunnel Water Filtration Plant located in Park City, Utah, US. The source water was groundwater in abandoned silver mine, naturally contaminated by 60-80 ppb of arsenic and antimony below 10 ppb. This water represents one of the sources of drinking water for Park City and constitutes about 44% of the water supply. The failure to remove antimony efficiently by coagulation/filtration (only 4.4% removal rate) under design conditions is discussed in terms of the chemistry differences between Sb (III, V) and As (III, V). Removal of Sb(V) at pH > 7, using coagulation/filtration technology, requires much higher (50 to 80 times) concentration of iron (III) than As. The stronger adsorption of arsenate over a wider pH range can be explained by the fact that arsenic acid is tri-protic, whereas antimonic acid is monoprotic. This difference in properties of As(V) and Sb(V) makes antimony (V) more difficult to be efficiently removed in low concentrations of iron hydroxide and alkaline pH waters, especially in concentration of Sb < 10 ppb.