Two Antarctic penguin genomes reveal insights into their evolutionary history and molecular changes related to the Antarctic environment.

BACKGROUND: Penguins are flightless aquatic birds widely distributed in the Southern Hemisphere. The distinctive morphological and physiological features of penguins allow them to live an aquatic life, and some of them have successfully adapted to the hostile environments in Antarctica. To study the phylogenetic and population history of penguins and the molecular basis of their adaptations to Antarctica, we sequenced the genomes of the two Antarctic dwelling penguin species, the Adélie penguin [Pygoscelis adeliae] and emperor penguin [Aptenodytes forsteri]. RESULTS: Phylogenetic dating suggests that early penguins arose ~60 million years ago, coinciding with a period of global warming. Analysis of effective population sizes reveals that the two penguin species experienced population expansions from ~1 million years ago to ~100 thousand years ago, but responded differently to the climatic cooling of the last glacial period. Comparative genomic analyses with other available avian genomes identified molecular changes in genes related to epidermal structure, phototransduction, lipid metabolism, and forelimb morphology. CONCLUSIONS: Our sequencing and initial analyses of the first two penguin genomes provide insights into the timing of penguin origin, fluctuations in effective population sizes of the two penguin species over the past 10 million years, and the potential associations between these biological patterns and global climate change. The molecular changes compared with other avian genomes reflect both shared and diverse adaptations of the two penguin species to the Antarctic environment.

Molecular cloning and stress-dependent expression of a gene encoding Delta(12)-fatty acid desaturase in the Antarctic microalga Chlorella vulgaris NJ-7

The psychrotrophic Antarctic alga, Chlorella vulgaris NJ-7, grows under an extreme environment of low temperature and high salinity. In an effort to better understand the correlation between fatty acid metabolism and acclimation to Antarctic environment, we analyzed its fatty acid compositions. An extremely high amount of Delta(12) unsaturated fatty acids was identified which prompted us to speculate about the involvement of Delta(12) fatty acid desaturase in the process of acclimation. A full-length cDNA sequence, designated CvFAD2, was isolated from C. vulgaris NJ-7 via reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and RACE methods. Sequence alignment and phylogenetic analysis showed that the gene was homologous to known microsomal Delta(12)-FADs with the conserved histidine motifs. Heterologous expression in yeast was used to confirm the regioselectivity and the function of CvFAD2. Linoleic acid (18:2), normally not present in wild-type yeast cells, was detected in transformants of CvFAD2. The induction of CvFAD2 at an mRNA level under cold stress and high salinity is detected by real-time PCR. The results showed that both temperature and salinity motivated the upregulation of CvFAD2 expression. The accumulation of CvFAD2 increased 2.2-fold at 15A degrees C and 3.9-fold at 4A degrees C compared to the alga at 25A degrees C. Meanwhile a 1.7- and 8.5-fold increase at 3 and 6% NaCl was detected. These data suggest that CvFAD2 is the enzyme responsible for the Delta(12) fatty acids desaturation involved in the adaption to cold and high salinity for Antarctic C. vugaris NJ-7.

Taxonomic assessment and enzymes production by yeasts isolated from marine and terrestrial Antarctic samples

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES)

The International Trans-Antarctic Scientific Expedition (ITASE): An Overview

From its original formulation in 1990 the International Trans-Antarctic Scientific Expedition (ITASE) has had as its primary aim the collection and interpretation of a continent-wide array of environmental parameters assembled through the coordinated efforts of scientists from several nations. ITASE offers the ground-based opportunities of traditional-style traverse travel coupled with the modern technology of CPS, crevasse detecting radar, satellite communications and multidisciplinary research. By operating predominantly in the mode of an oversnow traverse, ITASE offers scientists the opportunity to experience the dynamic range of the Antarctic environment. ITASE also offers an important interactive venue for research similar to that afforded by oceanographic research vessels and large polar field camps, without the cost of the former or the lack of mobility of the latter. More importantly, the combination of disciplines represented by ITASE provides a unique, multidimensional (space and time) view of the ice sheet and its history. ITASE has now collected > 20 000 km of snow radar, recovered more than 240 firn/ice cores (total length 7000m), remotely penetrated to similar to 4000m into the ice sheet, and sampled the atmosphere to heights of > 20 km.

Benzo(a)pyrene Metabolism and EROD and GST Biotransformation Activity in the Liver of Red- and White-Blooded Antarctic Fish.

Climate change and anthropogenic pollution are of increasing concern in remote areas such as Antarctica. The evolutionary adaptation of Antarctic notothenioid fish to the cold and stable Southern Ocean led to a low plasticity of their physiological functions, what may limit their capacity to deal with altered temperature regimes and pollution in the Antarctic environment. Using a biochemical approach, we aimed to assess the hepatic biotransformation capacities of Antarctic fish species by determining (i) the activities of ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase (EROD) and glutathione-S-transferase (GST), and (ii) the metabolic clearance of benzo(a)pyrene by hepatic S9 supernatants. In addition, we determined the thermal sensitivity of the xenobiotic biotransformation enzymes. We investigated the xenobiotic metabolism of the red-blooded Gobionotothen gibberifrons and Notothenia rossii, the hemoglobin-less Chaenocephalus aceratus and Champsocephalus gunnari, and the rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss as a reference. Our results revealed similar metabolic enzyme activities and metabolic clearance rates between red- and white-blooded Antarctic fish, but significantly lower rates in comparison to rainbow trout. Therefore, bioaccumulation factors for metabolizable lipophilic contaminants may be higher in Antarctic than in temperate fish. Likewise, the thermal adaptive capacities and flexibilities of the EROD and GST activities in Antarctic fish were significantly lower than in rainbow trout. As a consequence, increasing water temperatures in the Southern Ocean will additionally compromise the already low detoxification capacities of Antarctic fish.

Distribution and taxonomy of Enterococci from the Davis Station wastewater discharge, Antarctica

This project assessed the potential impact of untreated sewage release in a near-shore marine environment of Antarctica through the distribution and characterisation of the faecal indicator bacteria Enterococcus. Antibiotic resistance and genome sequencing analyses revealed that enterococci resistant to multiple antibiotics closely related to clinical pathogens were introduced to the pristine Antarctic environment by Australia's Davis station.

Novel use of faecal sterols to assess human faecal contamination in Antarctica : a likelihood assessment matrix for environmental monitoring

Wastewater containing human sewage is often discharged with little or no treatment into the Antarctic marine environment. Faecal sterols (primarily coprostanol) in sediments have been used for assessment of human sewage contamination in this environment, but in situ production and indigenous faunal inputs can confound such determinations. Using gas chromatography with mass spectral detection profiles of both C27 and C29 sterols, potential sources of faecal sterols were examined in nearshore marine sediments, encompassing sites proximal and distal to the wastewater outfall at Davis Station. Faeces from indigenous seals and penguins were also examined. Faeces from several indigenous species contained significant quantities of coprostanol but not 24-ethylcoprostanol, which is present in human faeces. In situ coprostanol and 24-ethylcoprostanol production was identified by co-production of their respective epi isomers at sites remote from the wastewat er source and in high total organic matter sediments. A C 29 sterols-based polyphasic likelihood assessment matrix for human sewage contamination is presented, which distinguishes human from local fauna faecal inputs and in situ production in the Antarctic environment. Sewage contamination was detected up to 1.5 km from Davis Station.

As aves antárticas estão livres de hemoparasitos? Um estudo de caso de pinguins (Pygoscelis spp.) e de skuas (Catharacta spp.) antárticos da Baía do Almirantado, Ilha Rei George, Antártica.

O parasitismo é uma importante força seletiva em populações, assim como a competição e a predação. Os parasitos sanguíneos podem afetar a coloração da plumagem, a seleção sexual e o sucesso reprodutivo em aves. As aves da região Antártica têm sido mencionadas na literatura como livres de hemoparasitos. A Baía do Almirantado, na Ilha Rei George, Península Antártica, é a maior Baía da região, abrigando diferentes espécies de aves durante o período reprodutivo. Dentre elas, estão duas espécies de skuas, as mais frequentes da Antártica, skua-sub-antártica (Catharacta lonnbergi) e skua-polar-do-sul (C. maccormicki) e três espécies de pinguins, pinguim-antártico (Pygoscelis antarctica), pinguim-papua (P. papua) e pinguim-de-adélia (P. adeliae). Skuas e pinguins são aves que se dispersam durante o inverno austral, podendo ser potenciais reservatórios e transmissores de parasitos, embora resultados negativos de hemoparasitos tenham sido encontrados para diversas outras aves marinhas e também para a região Antártica. O objetivo do presente trabalho foi investigar a presença de hemoparasitos em pinguins e skuas antárticos na Baía do Almirantado. Amostras de lâminas de esfregaço sanguíneo e de sangue para análises moleculares de pesquisa de Plasmodium/Haemoproteus foram coletadas em dois períodos reprodutivos, de dezembro de 2010 a março de 2011 e de dezembro de 2011 a fevereiro de 2012. Um total de 185 amostras de aves foram coletadas, incluindo 120 pinguins e 65 skuas. Skuas foram tiveram resultados negativos para hemoparasitos. As três espécies de pinguins foram positivas para Plasmodium/Haemoproteus , via técnica molecular, incluindo dois P. papua,dois P. antarctica etrês P. adeliae. Apenas um indivíduo confirmado positivo pela técnica molecular, pertencente a P. papua, foi positivo utilizando a técnica de esfregaço sanguíneo, com diagnóstico de Plasmodium sp. Não houve diferença significativa entre indivíduos machos e fêmeas das espécies parasitadas, assim como entre adultos e filhotes. As aves parasitadas (n=7), foram categorizadas abaixo do peso (n=5) e acima do peso (n=2). O presente estudo é o primeiro a relatar hemoparasitos na região Antártica e também é o primeiro registro de presença de hemoprotozoários para as três espécies de pinguins analisadas. A ausência de hemoparasitos em aves antárticas tem sido justificada pela ausência de potenciais vetores na região. Portanto, é possível que os pinguins parasitados tenham adquirido a infecção durante a dispersão por ocasião do inverno austral. No entanto, skuas antárticas também são aves migratórias, que podem atingir regiões com potenciais vetores reconhecidos, mas nunca foram diagnosticadas com hemoparasitos, o que foi reforçado pelos resultados negativos do presente estudo. Nesse caso, acredita-se que skuas, podem ter um sistema imune competente ou que a ausência de hemoparasitos nessas aves seja justificada por confinamentos filogenéticos entre parasito-hospedeiro. Entretanto, pouco se sabe sobre a existência de vetores na Antártica, rotas migratórias das aves da região e especificidade parasito-hospedeiro. Os resultados inéditos encontrados no presente estudo devem, portanto, servir como ponto de partida para o entendimento das interações parasito-hospedeiro, de forma a contribuir para a preservação do ambiente antártico.

一种使用GPS、罗盘和激光测距仪测定南极冰川运动的方法

南极冰川运动,是研究南极冰雪物质平衡、环境变化等的重要因素,对其的监测具有重大意义。本文提出了一种配合使用GPS、罗盘和激光测距仪实现测定冰川运动的方法。该方法在完成标定和在冰川上放置标志杆后,无需靠近冰川,只根据远处工作站的GPS、罗盘读数和激光测距仪的测量值就能给出标志杆的GPS数值,从而监测冰川的运动。

A Bacterial Enrichment Study and Overview of the Extractable Lipids from Paleosols in the Dry Valleys, Antarctica: Implications for Future Mars Reconnaissance

The Dry Valleys of Antarctica are one of the coldest and driest environments on Earth with paleosols in selected areas that date to the emplacement of tills by warm-based ice during the Early Miocene. Cited as an analogue to the martian surface, the ability of the Antarctic environment to support microbial life-forms is a matter of special interest, particularly with the upcoming NASA/ESA 2018 ExoMars mission. Lipid biomarkers were extracted and analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry to assess sources of organic carbon and evaluate the contribution of microbial species to the organic matter of the paleosols. Paleosol samples from the ice-free Dry Valleys were also subsampled and cultivated in a growth medium from which DNA was extracted with the explicit purpose of the positive identification of bacteria. Several species of bacteria were grown in solution and the genus identified. A similar match of the data to sequenced DNA showed that Alphaproteobacteria, Gamma-proteobacteria, Bacteriodetes, and Actinobacteridae species were cultivated. The results confirm the presence of bacteria within some paleosols, but no assumptions have been made with regard to in situ activity at present. These results underscore the need not only to further investigate Dry Valley cryosols but also to develop reconnaissance strategies to determine whether such likely Earth-like environments on the Red Planet also contain life.

Arsenic and trace metal contents in sediment profiles from the Admiralty Bay, King George Island, Antarctica

Admiralty Bay (Antarctica) hosts three scientific stations (Ferraz, Arctowski and Macchu Picchu), which require the use of fossil fuel as an energy source. Fossil fuels are also considered the main source of pollution in the area, representing important inputs of major pollutants (organic compounds) and trace metals and metalloids of environmental interest. Accordingly, this work presents the results of As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn in sediment profiles from Admiralty Bay. The sediment results from Ferraz station were slightly higher than the other sampling sites. The highest contents were observed for Cu and Zn (from 44 to 89 mg kg(-1)). Otherwise, by using enrichment factors and geochronology analysis, the most relevant enrichment was observed for As in the samples collected close to the Ferraz station, indicating that increasing As content may be associated with the activities associated with this site. Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Diatom assamblage in samples from sediment traps across the Pacific Sector of the Southern Ocean

An array of four sediment trap moorings recorded the particulate flux across the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) at 170 °W, between November 1996 and January 1998, as part of the US JGOFS-Antarctic Environment and Southern Ocean Process Study (AESOPS) program. The trap locations represent sampling within the Polar Frontal Zone, the Antarctic Polar Front, the Antarctic Zone and the Southern Antarctic Zone. Here we report observations from 1000 m below the sea-surface compared to seafloor and surface water distributions. Sub-sample splits from each trap were obtained and total diatom flux and species composition were determined. The diatom fluxes were quantified using both a dilution and a 'spike' method to allow for the rapid repeatability of measurements. Diatom flux was found to be highly seasonal across the ACC particularly at higher latitudes. Marine snow aggregates of intact diatom cells and chains were the major components of the biogenic flux. Siliceous particle size was noted to decrease with increasing latitude, which could be aligned with a shift of the diatom assemblage to small-size species/sea-ice affiliated species. A 'double-structured' diatom flux was recorded at the location of the Antarctic Polar Front trap, with a shift in the diatom assemblage from larger to smaller diatoms in the second flux episode. The sediment trap assemblage shows deviations from the surface water assemblage, while surface sediment samples indicate that significant dissolution occurs after 1000 m and at the sediment-water interface. Estimation of diatom biovolumes across the ACC shows that large diatoms have the potential to greatly impact biogenic fluxes to the ocean interior despite their low fluxes. Small species of the genus Fragilariopsis could potentially export as much Corg as Fragilariopsis kerguelensis near the retreating ice edge. However, their low abundance in the surface sediments also suggests that these diatoms are a shallow export species.