Selección trófica en Anemonia sulcata

[ES] Anemonia sulcata no muestra una selección trófica en función del color del alimento, aunque sí establece una tendencia clara a alimentarse sobre restos de crustáceos frente al pescado. Además, se observó que cuanto mayor es la talla del individuo, menor tiempo invierte en desplazarse hasta el alimento. La velocidad de desplazamiento se incrementa en relación directa al tiempo transcurrido en ayunas

¿Presenta la anémona Anemonia sulcata (Pennant, 1777) comportamiento de homing?

[ES] Se estudia la capacidad de retorno al lugar de origen en Anemonia sulcata en su medio natural. Treinta y dos individuos fueron marcados en charcas intermareales, de los cuales 20 fueron desplazados, 5 y 10cm, de sus posiciones originales. Posteriormente se observó el movimiento de todos ellos en las siguientes 48h. De todas las anémonas trasladadas, un único individuo volvió exactamente a su lugar de origen recorriendo, en las primeras 24h, los 10cm que había sido desplazado. Con los resultados obtenidos en este trabajo, Anemonia sulcata no parece presentar fidelidad por un lugar en concreto dentro de su charca. Al ser trasladado desde su lugar inicial, simplemente busca un nuevo punto de fijación y lo hace tomando una dirección aleatoria. A falta de estudios más exhaustivos, se puede afirmar que esta especie no presenta comportamiento de homing.

Rapporto tecnico sulla ottimizzazione del processo di biosintesi di una Green Fluorescent Protein ricombinante estratta da A. sulcata

L’espressione di geni eterologhi in Escherichia coli rappresenta uno dei metodi più veloci, semplici ed economici per la produzione di ampie quantità di proteine target. Tuttavia, meccanismi di folding e le modifiche post traduzionali inducono a volte un non corretto ripiegamento delle proteine nella conformazione nativa, con successiva aggregazione in quelli che vengono definiti corpi di inclusione. Nel nostro caso, l’attenzione è stata focalizzata su una Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP) di 228 aa estratta da Anemonia sulcata, contenente un fluoroforo composto da tre amminoacidi Gln63, Tyr64, Gly65 all'interno di una struttura a barile. Il corretto folding della proteina era correlato strettamente alla funzionalità del fluoroforo. Il nostro obiettivo è stato quello, quindi, di ottimizzare il processo di biosintesi della GFP espressa in E. coli, ovviando alla formazione di corpi di inclusione contenenti la proteina (non funzionale), definendo e standardizzando inoltre, le condizioni che consentivano di produrre la più alta percentuale di GFP correttamente ripiegata (in condizioni non denaturanti) e quindi funzionale.

姚虻成功从宿主获得血餐的分子机制初探

在长期的吸血进化过程中，吸血节肢动物在唾液腺中形成了一系列有助于适应吸 血生存的活性物质，这些物质包括血管舒张分子、血小板聚集抑制分子、抗凝血分子 和其它相互作用的分子。此外，为了得到洁净的血液和防止在吸血过程中被病原微生 物感染，吸血节肢动物在其唾液腺中形成了许多防御物质以保护自身和宿主，这些物 质包括抗菌肽和蛋白酶抑制剂等。因此，研究吸血节肢动物的唾液腺重要活性物质和 转录体组学有助于弄清其吸血机制。 姚虻（Tabancus yao Macquart）是我国特有的牛虻，其雌性在产卵前需要吸食大 型哺乳动物的血液以促使卵的发育。我们希望通过对姚虻唾液腺重要活性物质和转录 体组学的研究揭示姚虻成功从宿主获得血餐的分子机制，找到具有药用前景的活性物 质和为控制该虫及其传播的疾病的提供理论基础。 首先，我们对其唾液腺匀浆物活性进行了系统分析，发现姚虻唾液腺匀浆物具有 如下活性：有抗金黄色葡萄球菌活性，并且对大肠杆菌、白色念球菌和枯草杆菌都有 效；能够抑制ADP 诱导的洗涤和富血浆血小板的聚集；能够凝集兔红细胞、能够抑制 丝氨酸蛋白酶对小肽底物的水解、具有对纤维蛋白原的水解活性（金属蛋白酶）、具 有过敏原活性、能够促进肥大细胞脱粒和组氨释放；反复检测而没有发现的活性如下： 磷脂酶A2(PLA2)活性、溶血活性、血浆凝固活性、体外抗补体、血管生长促进与抑制 活性、对小鼠脾细胞因子分泌的促进和抑制活性、抗肿瘤细胞HepG2 的生长活性。 以来源姚虻唾液腺的mRNA为材料，我们成功构建了丰度为1ｘ106的姚虻唾液腺 cDNA文库。通过对400个随机克隆的测序，我们得到了编码23种保守蛋白，44种分泌 蛋白和5种功能未知的蛋白。44种分泌蛋白中比较重要的分别是：20种抗原5相关蛋白、 2种α淀粉酶、2种麦芽糖酶、2种attactins抗菌蛋白以及血管舒张肽、过氧化物酶、 抗菌肽、透明质酸酶、mucin样蛋白和脯氨酸丰富蛋白。另外，一些不知道功能的分 泌肽也被发现,这其中包括四个与Hybomitra bimaculata的分泌肽相似性达47-82%的 多肽，这些信息有助于我们发现牛虻唾液腺活性物质和加快从知道部分氨基酸序列的 蛋白的鉴定速度，加快对姚虻从宿主获得血餐的分子机制的诠释速度。 通过分子筛、高压液相色谱等程序，我们从姚虻唾液腺中得到了一个由55 个氨 基酸组成，分子量为6 kDa，含有3 对二硫键的Kunitz 型丝氨基酸蛋白酶抑制剂TYTI。 该抑制剂与Anemonia sulcata 的蛋白酶抑制剂AsKC3 和SA5II 的成熟肽部分的同源 性达66%；并且该抑制剂，对热相对稳定；对凝乳酶、弹性蛋白酶、凝血酶、胰酶等 都有抑制作用，对胰酶的抑制常数为2.586ｘ10-4M 。 通过分子筛、高压液相色谱等程序，我们从姚虻唾液腺中得到了一分子量为7 kDa，由65 个氨基酸组成且含有3 对二硫键的防御素Taymin，它与长角血蜱的防御素的相 似性达43%，但它的第二个半胱氨酸比长角血蜱的半胱氨酸靠前一个氨基酸。该抗菌 肽对大肠杆菌、金黄色葡萄球菌、枯草芽孢杆菌和白色念球菌的最小抑菌浓度分别是: 160、80、140 和120μg/mL。 通过与分离丝氨酸蛋白酶抑制剂相同的生化分离手段,从姚虻唾液腺中得到一种 红细胞凝集素样活性物质TYML1，其能凝集原始和经胰酶、链霉蛋白酶和弹性蛋白酶 处理的A、B、O 和AB 血型的人、兔、绵羊、大鼠、小鼠、鹌鹑的红细胞, 对链霉蛋 白酶处理的鹌鹑红细胞的凝集效价比正常下降了8 倍；对热、酸、碱处理和蛋白酶降 解稳定；具有Ca2+依赖性，活性能为半乳糖胺和胎球蛋白所完全抑制。 通过分子筛、阴离子交换、高压液相色谱等程序，我们从姚虻唾液腺中分离得到 了一分子量为26 kDa,由234 个氨基酸组成，含有10 个半胱氨酸的血小板聚集抑制剂 Macquaritin-2,它与报道的所有血小板聚集抑制剂均不具有同源性，但是与双翅目昆 虫唾液腺过敏原却有一定的同源性(25%-33%),对其血小板聚集抑制活性研究发现:其 能抑制胰酶、花生四烯酸、Stejnulxin、TMVA、ADP、U46619 等激动剂诱导的血小板 聚集；血小板膜结合试验表明:其能与血小板细胞膜结合,故该血小板聚集抑制剂可能 通过作用血小板上的受体来阻止激动剂诱导血小板聚集。 通过分子筛、阳离子交换、高压液相色谱等程序，我们从姚虻唾液腺中分离得到 分子量为24-30 kDa 的两个血小板聚集抑制剂Macquaritin-3 和Macquaritin-1，它 们的N 端16 个氨基酸分别是V N Y C R L P C R G C D Y H V 和 V A V D Y L G L P G R G Y H V。通过PCR, Macquaritin-3 的核苷酸序列被得到，其推导蛋白的成熟区 和信号肽分别含有232 和23 个氨基酸。利用根据Macquaritin-1 的N 端氨基酸设计 的简并引物扩到含有V A V D Y L G L P 序列的两组核苷酸序列。它们与报道的所有 血小板聚集抑制剂均不具有同源性，但是其与双翅目昆虫的唾液腺抗原5 相关蛋白却 有一定的同源性。将所有血小板抑制剂及其相关序列和通过cDNA 文库筛选得到的抗 原5 相关序列进行分析,发现它们有很高的相似性,这种相似性介于33.3%-93.0%间, 且大部分高于50%。另外，两个血小板聚集抑制剂和一个可能的血小板抑制剂分别处 于这些抗原5 相关蛋白进化树的三个簇中。因此，我们推测这些过抗原5 相关蛋白可 能都具有血小板抑制剂活性。

Amino acid substitutions around the chromophore of the chromoprotein Rtms5 influence polypeptide cleavage

Extension of the conjugated pi-system of many all-protein chromophores with an acylimine bond is the basis for their red-shifted optical properties. The presence of this post-translational modification is evident in crystal structures of these proteins. Harsh denaturation of proteins containing an acylimine bond results in partial polypeptide cleavage. For the red fluorescent protein DsRed, the extent of cleavage is quantitative. However, this is not the case for the blue non-fluorescent chromoprotein Rtms5, even though all chromophores in tetrameric Rtms5 contain an acylimine bond. We have identified two positions around the chromophore of Rtms5 where substitutions can promote or suppress the extent of cleavage on harsh denaturation. We propose a model in which cleavage of Rtms5 is facilitated by a trans to cis isomerisation of the chromophore. (c) 2006 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Diurnal polyp expansion behavior in stony corals may enhance carbon availability for symbionts photosynthesis

Photosynthesis of zooxanthellate stony corals may be limited by inorganic carbon at high irradiances. We demonstrated that oxygen consumption of expanded corals is higher than that of contracted corals in both night-expanding and day-expanding corals. It is assumed that at the single-polyp level, the expansion of tentacles increases the surface area for solute exchange with the surrounding water, which may alleviate potential carbon limitation and excess oxygen levels in the tissue under high irradiance. We investigated this hypothesis using stable carbon isotope (613 C) analysis of coral species from the Red Sea exhibiting different morphologies. delta C-13 ratios in zooxanthellae of branched coral colonies with small polyp size that extend their tentacles during daytime (diurnal morphs) showed lower delta C-13 values in their zooxanthellae - 13.83 +/- 1.45 parts per thousand, compared to corals from the same depth with large polyps, which are usually massive and expand their tentacles only at night (nocturnal morphs). Their algae delta C-13 was significantly higher, averaging - 11.33 +/- 0.59 parts per thousand. Carbon isotope budget of the coral tissue suggests that branched corals are more autotrophic, i.e., that they depend on their symbionts for nutrition compared to massive species, which are more heterotrophic and depend on plankton predation. (c) 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Comportamiento agresivo intraespecífico e interespecífico de Anemonia viridis en el intermareal

[ES] No se ha podido observar en Anemonia viridis una distribución espacial similar a la descrita por Francis (1988) para otras especies de anémonas, posiblemente por la estrechez de zona intermareal en Canarias. Por otra parte, la agresividad parece estar directamente asociada con el tamaño del individuo, pero ésta se dio siempre entre individuos no clonales. Se demuestra que la coloración es un factor relacionado con su éxito agresivo.

Trace element profiles of the sea anemone Anemonia viridis living nearby a natural CO2 vent

Ocean acidification (OA) is not an isolated threat, but acts in concert with other impacts on ecosystems and species. Coastal marine invertebrates will have to face the synergistic interactions of OA with other global and local stressors. One local factor, common in coastal environments, is trace element contamination. CO2 vent sites are extensively studied in the context of OA and are often considered analogous to the oceans in the next few decades. The CO2 vent found at Levante Bay (Vulcano, NE Sicily, Italy) also releases high concentrations of trace elements to its surrounding seawater, and is therefore a unique site to examine the effects of long-term exposure of nearby organisms to high pCO2 and trace element enrichment in situ. The sea anemone Anemonia viridis is prevalent next to the Vulcano vent and does not show signs of trace element poisoning/stress. The aim of our study was to compare A. viridis trace element profiles and compartmentalization between high pCO2 and control environments. Rather than examining whole anemone tissue, we analyzed two different body compartments-the pedal disc and the tentacles, and also examined the distribution of trace elements in the tentacles between the animal and the symbiotic algae. We found dramatic changes in trace element tissue concentrations between the high pCO2/high trace element and control sites, with strong accumulation of iron, lead, copper and cobalt, but decreased concentrations of cadmium, zinc and arsenic proximate to the vent. The pedal disc contained substantially more trace elements than the anemone's tentacles, suggesting the pedal disc may serve as a detoxification/storage site for excess trace elements. Within the tentacles, the various trace elements displayed different partitioning patterns between animal tissue and algal symbionts. At both sites iron was found primarily in the algae, whereas cadmium, zinc and arsenic were primarily found in the animal tissue. Our data suggests that A. viridis regulates its internal trace element concentrations by compartmentalization and excretion and that these features contribute to its resilience and potential success at the trace element-rich high pCO2 vent.

Regulation of intracellular pH in cnidarians: response to acidosis in Anemonia viridis

The regulation of intracellular pH (pHi) is a fundamental aspect of cell physiology that has received little attention in studies of the phylum Cnidaria, which includes ecologically important sea anemones and reef-building corals. Like all organisms, cnidarians must maintain pH homeostasis to counterbalance reductions in pHi, which can arise because of changes in either intrinsic or extrinsic parameters. Corals and sea anemones face natural daily changes in internal fluids, where the extracellular pH can range from 8.9 during the day to 7.4 at night. Furthermore, cnidarians are likely to experience future CO2-driven declines in seawater pH, a process known as ocean acidification. Here, we carried out the first mechanistic investigation to determine how cnidarian pHi regulation responds to decreases in extracellular and intracellular pH. Using the anemone Anemonia viridis, we employed confocal live cell imaging and a pH-sensitive dye to track the dynamics of pHi after intracellular acidosis induced by acute exposure to decreases in seawater pH and NH4Cl prepulses. The investigation was conducted on cells that contained intracellular symbiotic algae (Symbiodinium sp.) and on symbiont-free endoderm cells. Experiments using inhibitors and Na-free seawater indicate a potential role of Na/H plasma membrane exchangers (NHEs) in mediating pHi recovery following intracellular acidosis in both cell types. We also measured the buffering capacity of cells, and obtained values between 20.8 and 43.8 mM per pH unit, which are comparable to those in other invertebrates. Our findings provide the first steps towards a better understanding of acid-base regulation in these basal metazoans, for which information on cell physiology is extremely limited.

Natural high pCO2 increases autotrophy in Anemonia viridis (Anthozoa) as revealed from stable isotope (C, N) analysis

Contemporary cnidarian-algae symbioses are challenged by increasing CO2 concentrations (ocean warming and acidification) affecting organisms' biological performance. We examined the natural variability of carbon and nitrogen isotopes in the symbiotic sea anemone Anemonia viridis to investigate dietary shifts (autotrophy/heterotrophy) along a natural pCO2 gradient at the island of Vulcano, Italy. delta 13C values for both algal symbionts (Symbiodinium) and host tissue of A. viridis became significantly lighter with increasing seawater pCO2. Together with a decrease in the difference between delta 13C values of both fractions at the higher pCO2 sites, these results indicate there is a greater net autotrophic input to the A. viridis carbon budget under high pCO2 conditions. delta 15N values and C/N ratios did not change in Symbiodinium and host tissue along the pCO2 gradient. Additional physiological parameters revealed anemone protein and Symbiodinium chlorophyll a remained unaltered among sites. Symbiodinium density was similar among sites yet their mitotic index increased in anemones under elevated pCO2. Overall, our findings show that A. viridis is characterized by a higher autotrophic/heterotrophic ratio as pCO2 increases. The unique trophic flexibility of this species may give it a competitive advantage and enable its potential acclimation and ecological success in the future under increased ocean acidification.

Studies on growth rate and grazing mortality rate by microzooplankton of size-fractionated phytoplankton in spring and summer in the Jiaozhou Bay, China

Dilution experiments were performed to examine the growth rate and grazing mortality rate of size-fractionated phytoplankton at three typical stations, inside and outside the bay, in the spring and summer of 2003 in the Jiaozhou Bay, China. in spring, the phytoplankton community structure was similar among the three stations, and was mainly composed of nanophytoplankton, such as, Skeletonema costatum and Cylindrotheca closterium. The structure became significantly different for the three stations in summer, when the dominant species at Stas A, B and C were Chaetoceros curvisetus, Pseudo-nitzschia delicatissima, C. affinis, C. debilis, Coscinodiscus oculus-iridis and Paralia sulcata respectively. Tintinnopsis beroidea and T. tsingtaoensis were the dominant species in spring, whereas the microzooplankton was apparently dominated by Strombidium sp. in summer. Pico- and nanophytoplankton had a relatively greater growth rate than microzooplankton both in spring and summer. The growth rate and grazing mortality rate were 0.18 similar to 0.44 and 0.12 similar to 1.47 d(-1) for the total phytoplankton and 0.20 similar to 0.55 and 0.21 similar to 0.37 d-1 for nanophytoplankton in spring respectively. In summer, the growth rate and grazing mortality rate were 0.38 similar to 0.71 and 0.27 similar to 0.60 d-1 for the total phytoplankton and 0.11 similar to 1.18 and 0.41 similar to 0.72 d(-1) for nano- and microphytoplankton respectively. The carbon flux consumed by microzooplankton per day was 7.68 similar to 39.81 mg/m(3) in spring and 12.03 similar to 138.22 mg/m(3) in summer respectively. Microzooplankton ingested 17.56%similar to 92.19% of the phytoplankton standing stocks and 31.77%similar to 467.88% of the potential primary productivity in spring; in contrast, they ingested 34.60%similar to 83.04% of the phytoplankton standing stocks and 71.28%similar to 98.80% of the potential primary productivity in summer. Pico- and nanophytoplankton appeared to have relatively greater rates of growth and grazing mortality than microphytoplankton during the experimental period. The grazing rate of microzooplankton in summer was a little bit greater than that in spring because of the relatively higher incubation temperature and different dominant microzooplankton species. Microzooplankton preferred ingesting nanophytoplankton to microphytoplankton in spring, while they preferred ingesting picophytoplankton to nanophytoplankton and microphytoplankton in summer. Compared with the results of dilution experiments performed in various waters worldwide, the results are in the middle range.