Smad5 regulates Akt2 expression and insulin-induced glucose uptake in L6 myotubes

Insulin-induced glucose uptake by skeletal muscle results from Akt2 activation and is severely impaired during insulin resistance Recently, we and others have demonstrated that BMP9 improves glucose homeostasis in diabetic and non-diabetic rodents. However, the mechanism by which BMP9 modulates insulin action remains unknown. Here we demonstrate that Smad5. a transcription factor activated by BMP9, and Akt2. are upregulated in differentiated L6 myotubes. Smad5, rather than Smad1/8, is downregulated ""in vivo"" and ""in vitro"" by dexamethasone Smad5 knockdown decreased Akt2 expression and serine phosphorylation and insulin-induced glucose uptake, and increased the expression of the lipid phosphatase Ship2. Additionally, binding of Smad5 to Akt2 gene is decreased in dexamethasone-treated rats and Increased in L6 myotubes compared to myoblasts The present study indicates that Smad5 regulates glucose uptake in skeletal muscle by controlling Akt2 expression and phosphorylation These finding reveals Smad5 as a potential target for the therapeutic of type 2 diabetes. (C) 2010 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

Amplification of AKT2 in human pancreatic cells and inhibition of AKT2 expression and tumorigenicity by antisense RNA.

We previously demonstrated that the putative oncogene AKT2 is amplified and overexpressed in some human ovarian carcinomas. We have now identified amplification of AKT2 in approximately 10% of pancreatic carcinomas (2 of 18 cell lines and 1 of 10 primary tumor specimens). The two cell lines with altered AKT2 (PANC1 and ASPC1) exhibited 30-fold and 50-fold amplification of AKT2, respectively, and highly elevated levels of AKT2 RNA and protein. PANC1 cells were transfected with antisense AKT2, and several clones were established after G418 selection. The expression of AKT2 protein in these clones was greatly decreased by the antisense RNA. Furthermore, tumorigenicity in nude mice was markedly reduced in PANC1 cells expressing antisense AKT2 RNA. To examine further whether overexpression of AKT2 plays a significant role in pancreatic tumorigenesis, PANC1 cells and ASPC1 cells, as well as pancreatic carcinoma cells that do not overexpress AKT2 (COLO 357), were transfected with antisense AKT2, and their growth and invasiveness were characterized by a rat tracheal xenotransplant assay. ASPC1 and PANC1 cells expressing antisense AKT2 RNA remained confined to the tracheal lumen, whereas the respective parental cells invaded the tracheal wall. In contrast, no difference was seen in the growth pattern between parental and antisense-treated COLO 357 cells. These data suggest that overexpression of AKT2 contributes to the malignant phenotype of a subset of human ductal pancreatic cancers.

Prolonged hyperinsulinemia affects metabolic signal transduction markers in a tissue specific manner

Insulin dysregulation is common in horses although the mechanisms of metabolic dysfunction are poorly understood. We hypothesized that insulin signaling in striated (cardiac and skeletal) muscle and lamellae may be mediated through different receptors as a result of receptor content, and that transcriptional regulation of downstream signal transduction and glucose transport may also differ between tissues sites during hyperinsulinemia. Archived samples from horses treated with a prolonged insulin infusion or a balanced electrolyte solution were used. All treated horses developed marked hyperinsulinemia and clinical laminitis. Protein expression was compared across tissues for the insulin receptor and insulin-like growth factor 1 receptor (IGF-1R) by immunoblotting. Gene expression of metabolic insulin-signaling markers (insulin receptor substrate 1, Akt2, and glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta [GSK-3β]) and glucose transport (basal glucose transporter 1 and insulin-sensitive glucose transporter 4) was evaluated using real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction. Lamellar tissue contained significantly more IGF-1R protein than skeletal muscle, indicating the potential significance of IGF-1R signaling for this tissue. Gene expression of the selected markers of insulin signaling and glucose transport in skeletal muscle and lamellar tissues was unaffected by prolonged hyperinsulinemia. In contrast, the significant upregulation of Akt2, GSK-3β, GLUT1, and GLUT4 gene expression in cardiac tissue suggested that the prolonged hyperinsulinemia induced an increase in insulin sensitivity and a transcriptional activation of glucose transport. Responses to insulin are tissue-specific, and extrapolation of data across tissue sites is inappropriate.

Developing peptide based capture agents for diagnostics and therapeutics

Iterative in situ click chemistry (IISCC) is a robust general technology for development of high throughput, inexpensive protein detection agents. In IISCC, the target protein acts as a template and catalyst, and assembles its own ligand from modular blocks of peptides. This process of ligand discovery is iterated to add peptide arms to develop a multivalent ligand with increased affinity and selectivity. The peptide based protein capture agents (PCC) should ideally have the same degree of selectivity and specificity as a monoclonal antibody, along with improved chemical stability. We had previously reported developing a PCC agent against bovine carbonic anhydrase II (bCAII) that could replace a polyclonal antibody. To further enhance the affinity or specificity of the PCC agent, I explore branching the peptide arms to develop branched PCC agents against bCAII. The developed branched capture agents have two to three fold higher affinities for the target protein. In the second part of my thesis, I describe the epitope targeting strategy, a strategy for directing the development of a peptide ligand against specific region or fragment of the protein. The strategy is successfully demonstrated by developing PCC agents with low nanomolar binding affinities that target the C-terminal hydrophobic motif of Akt2 kinase. One of the developed triligands inhibits the kinase activity of Akt. This suggests that, if targeted against the right epitope, the PCC agents can also influence the functional properties of the protein. The exquisite control of the epitope targeting strategy is further demonstrated by developing a cyclic ligand against Akt2. The cyclic ligand acts as an inhibitor by itself, without any iteration of the ligand discovery process. The epitope targeting strategy is a cornerstone of the IISCC technology and opens up new opportunities, leading to the development of protein detection agents and of modulators of protein functions.

AKT in Stromal Fibroblasts Controls Invasion of Epithelial Cells

The tumour microenvironment has an important role in cancer progression and recent reports have proposed that stromal AKT is activated and regulates tumourigenesis and invasion. We have shown, by immuno-fluorescent analysis of oro-pharyngeal cancer biopsies, an increase in AKT activity in tumour associated stromal fibroblasts compared to normal stromal fibroblasts. Using organotypic raft co-cultures, we show that activation of stromal AKT can induce the invasion of keratinocytes expressing the HPV type 16 E6 and E7 proteins, in a Keratinocyte Growth Factor (KGF) dependent manner. By depleting stromal fibroblasts of each of the three AKT isoforms independently, or through using isoform specific inhibitors, we determined that stromal AKT2 is an essential regulator of invasion and show in oro-pharyngeal cancers that AKT2 specific phosphorylation events are also identified in stromal fibroblasts. Depletion of stromal AKT2 inhibits epithelial invasion through activating a protective pathway counteracting KGF mediated invasions. AKT2 depletion in fibroblasts stimulates the cleavage and release of IL1B from stromal fibroblasts resulting in down-regulation of the KGF receptor (fibroblast growth factor receptor 2B (FGFR2B)) expression in the epithelium. We also show that high IL1B is associated with increased overall survival in a cohort of patients with oro-pharyngeal cancers. Our findings demonstrate the importance of stromal derived growth factors and cytokines in regulating the process of tumour cell invasion.

Le rôle d’Akt dans la réponse cellulaire aux dommages à l’ADN induits par les ultraviolets dans les cellules de mélanomes humains

Le mélanome malin est l’un des cancers les plus mortels dont l’incidence continue à augmenter chaque année avec peu de traitement efficace à long terme. Il est causé et initié principalement par l’exposition excessive aux rayons ultraviolets engendrant des photoproduits hautement génotoxiques. Il est bien connu que la cascade de signalisation PI3K/Akt joue un rôle crucial dans la régulation des processus qui sont généralement dérégulés durant le développement tumoral comme la prolifération, le contrôle du cycle cellulaire et l’apoptose. Néanmoins, l’implication de cette voie moléculaire dans la réponse aux dommages à l’ADN est peu caractérisée. Chez les mammifères, trois isoformes de la protéine kinase Akt ont été identifiées: Akt1, Akt2 et Akt3. Bien qu’elles soient très homologues en termes de séquence, plusieurs études ont montré que ces isoformes ont des fonctions biologiques distinctes, et nous suggérons qu’elles puissent contribuer différemment à la régulation de la réponse génotoxique. Les objectifs de ce projet étaient de: (i) évaluer l’activation d’Akt dans les cellules de mélanomes (ii) déterminer l’impact de l’inhibition de cette activité sur la régulation de la réponse cellulaire aux UV (iii) vérifier si la perte d’expression de l’un ou de l’autre des isoformes d’Akt peut réguler la réponse aux UV. Nous avons démontré qu’Akt est transitoirement hyperactivée par phosphorylation suite aux irradiations UV dans les lignées cellulaires de mélanomes. Afin de déterminer l'importance de cette activation dans la réponse cellulaire aux UV, notre approche était de diminuer (i) la phosphorylation d’Akt par l’usage d’inhibiteurs pharmacologiques ou (ii) l’expression de chaque isoforme d’Akt par l’approche des ARN interférents. Nous avons montré que l’inhibition de la phosphorylation d’Akt amène à l’augmentation du taux de l’apoptose induit par les UV d’une manière isoforme spécifique, alors qu’elle n’a aucun effet sur la régulation de la voie de réparation par excision de nucléotides (NER), qui est la seule voie humaine pour éliminer les dommages à l’ADN induits par les UV. En somme, notre étude constitue un nouvel aspect qui permet de mieux comprendre les mécanismes moléculaires du développement de mélanomes malins suites aux irradiations ultraviolettes.

Convergencia de vías de señalización en un modelo de apoptosis

La sepsis es un evento inflamatorio generalizado del organismo inducido por un daño causado generalmente por un agente infeccioso. El patógeno más frecuentemente asociado con esta entidad es el Staphylococcus aureus, responsable de la inducción de apoptosis en células endoteliales debida a la producción de ceramida. Se ha descrito el efecto protector de la proteína C activada (PCA) en sepsis y su relación con la disminución de la apoptosis de las células endoteliales. En este trabajo se analizó la activación de las quinasas AKT, ASK1, SAPK/JNK y p38 en un modelo de apoptosis endotelial usando las técnicas de Western Blotting y ELISA. Las células endoteliales (EA.hy926), se trataron con C2-ceramida (130μM) en presencia de inhibidores químicos de cada una de estas quinasas y PCA. La supervivencia de las células en presencia de inhibidores químicos y PCA fue evaluada por medio de ensayos de activación de las caspasas 3, 7 y 9, que verificaban la muerte celular por apoptosis. Los resultados evidencian que la ceramida reduce la activación de AKT y aumenta la activación de las quinasas ASK, SAPK/JNK y p38, en tanto que PCA ejerce el efecto contrario. Adicionalmente se encontró que la tiorredoxina incrementa la activación/fosforilación de AKT, mientras que la quinasa p38 induce la defosforilación de AKT.

Studio del ruolo della Protein chinasi B/Akt nella migrazione di Cellule Staminali Mesenchimali umane

Le cellule staminali/stromali mesenchimali umane (hMSC) sono attualmente applicate in diversi studi clinici e la loro efficacia è spesso legata alla loro capacità di raggiungere il sito d’interesse. Poco si sa sul loro comportamento migratorio e i meccanismi che ne sono alla base. Perciò, questo studio è stato progettato per comprendere il comportamento migratorio delle hMSC e il coinvolgimento di Akt, nota anche come proteina chinasi B. L’espressione e la fosforilazione della proteinchinasi Akt è stata studiata mediante Western blotting. Oltre al time-lapse in vivo imaging, il movimento cellulare è stato monitorato sia mediante saggi tridimensionali, con l’uso di transwell, che mediante saggi bidimensionali, attraverso la tecnica del wound healing. Le prove effettuate hanno rivelato che le hMSC hanno una buona capacità migratoria. E’ stato osservato che la proteinchinasi B/Akt ha elevati livelli basali di fosforilazione in queste cellule. Inoltre, la caratterizzazione delle principali proteine di regolazione ed effettrici, a monte e a valle di Akt, ha permesso di concludere che la cascata di reazioni della via di segnale anche nelle hMSC segue un andamento canonico. Specifici inibitori farmacologici sono stati utilizzati per determinare il potenziale meccanismo coinvolto nella migrazione cellulare e nell'invasione. L’inibizione della via PI3K/Akt determina una significativa riduzione della migrazione. L’utilizzo di inibitori farmacologici specifici per le singole isoforme di Akt ha permesso di discriminare il ruolo diverso di Akt1 e Akt2 nella migrazione delle hMSC. E’ stato infatti dimostrato che l'inattivazione di Akt2, ma non quella di Akt1, diminuisce significativamente la migrazione cellulare. Nel complesso i risultati ottenuti indicano che l'attivazione di Akt2 svolge un ruolo critico nella migrazione della hMSC; ulteriori studi sono necessari per approfondire la comprensione del fenomeno. La dimostrazione che l’isoforma Akt2 è necessaria per la chemiotassi diretta delle hMSC, rende questa chinasi un potenziale bersaglio farmacologico per modulare la loro migrazione.

Einfluss einer Schwerionenbestrahlung auf das Migrationsverhalten von Tumorzellen

Die Bildung von Metastasen und Rezidiven stellt ein großes Problem für eine erfolgreiche Therapie solider maligner Tumoren dar. Dabei ist die Rolle der angewendeten Therapiever-fahren in der Induktion metastasierender Zellen vor allem für eine Schwerionentherapie noch weitestgehend unklar. Die für die Metastasierung entscheidende Tumorzellmigration wurde daher unter dem Einfluss von Röntgen- und Schwerionenstrahlung untersuchen. Dazu wurden drei humane Tumorzelllinien (Gliomzelllinie U87 und kolorektale Zelllinien HCT116 und HCT116 p21-/-) unter standardisierten Bedingungen in einer Boydenkammer direkt und 24 Stunden nach Bestrahlung in vitro auf ihr Migrationsverhalten untersucht. Um mögliche Än-derungen migrationsrelevanter Proteine zu bestimmen, wurden zu denselben Zeitpunkten Zelllysate hergestellt und die Expression der Integrine b1 und b3 sowie der Proteinkinase B Isoformen Akt1 und Akt2 und deren Phosphorylierung untersucht. Gezeigt werden konnten sowohl zelllinien- als auch strahlenspezifische Unterschiede in der Migration und der Proteinexpressionen. Dabei konnten die beobachteten Migrationsänderungen nur zum Teil (vor allem nach Röntgenbestrahlung) durch die veränderte Expressionen der untersuchten Proteine erklärt werden. Daher ist zu vermuten, dass den strahleninduzierten Veränderungen der Migration der verwendeten Zelllinien verschiedene Mechanis-men zugrunde liegen, die auf der Expression unterschiedlicher Proteine beruhen. Bestrahlungen mit 12C-Ionen scheinen prinzipiell andere Expressionsmuster zu induzieren als konventionelle Strahlung und die hier untersuchten Proteine in der Migration der Zellen daher nur eine untergeordnete Rolle zu spielen. Auffällig waren die deutlich zelllinienspezifischen Unterschiede in der Migration nach Röntgenbestrahlung. Dort wurde ein zum Teil erhöhtes Migrationspotential nach klinisch relevanten Bestrahlungsdosen von U87 Gliomzellen festgestellt. Die Migrationsaktivität von kolorektalen Zelllinien hingegen nahm nach Bestrahlung ab. Nach Schwerionenbestrahlung wurden für alle Zelllinien signifikante Abnahmen der Migration festgestellt. Die hier erhaltenen Ergebnisse können aufgrund einer Vielzahl pro- und antimigratorischer Signale im Tumorgewebe nicht direkt in die in vivo Situation übertragen werden, doch können sie durchaus als Hinweise für die Abschätzung eines veränderten Metastasierungsrisikos dienen. Für kolorektale Zellen, unabhängig von ihrem p21-Status scheint eine Behandlung mit Röntgenstrahlen eher nicht mit einem erhöhten Migrationsrisiko einherzugehen. Anders ist dies bei den hier untersuchten Gliomzellen U87. Hier kann ein strahleninduziertes Metastasierungsrisiko aufgrund der erzielten Ergebnisse keinesfalls ausgeschlossen werden. Aus dieser Sicht scheint eine Behandlung von Gliomen mit 12C-Ionen vorteilhafter, da eine sehr gute reproduzierbare strahlenvermittelte Migrationshemmung beobachtet wurde.

Genetic variations in the PI3K-AKT-mTOR pathway and bladder cancer susceptibility and clinical outcomes

Bladder cancer is the fourth most common cancer in men in the United States. There is compelling evidence supporting that genetic variations contribute to the risk and outcomes of bladder cancer. The PI3K-AKT-mTOR pathway is a major cellular pathway involved in proliferation, invasion, inflammation, tumorigenesis, and drug response. Somatic aberrations of PI3K-AKT-mTOR pathway are frequent events in several cancers including bladder cancer; however, no studies have investigated the role of germline genetic variations in this pathway in bladder cancer. In this project, we used a large case control study to evaluate the associations of a comprehensive catalogue of SNPs in this pathway with bladder cancer risk and outcomes. Three SNPs in RAPTOR were significantly associated with susceptibility: rs11653499 (OR: 1.79, 95%CI: 1.24–2.60), rs7211818 (OR: 2.13, 95%CI: 1.35–3.36), and rs7212142 (OR: 1.57, 95%CI: 1.19–2.07). Two haplotypes constructed from these 3 SNPs were also associated with bladder cancer risk. In combined analysis, a significant trend was observed for increased risk with an increase in the number of unfavorable genotypes (P for trend<0.001). Classification and regression tree analysis identified potential gene-environment interactions between RPS6KA5 rs11653499 and smoking. In superficial bladder cancer, we found that PTEN rs1234219 and rs11202600, TSC1 rs7040593, RAPTOR rs901065, and PIK3R1 rs251404 were significantly associated with recurrence in patients receiving BCG. In muscle invasive and metastatic bladder cancer, AKT2 rs3730050, PIK3R1 rs10515074, and RAPTOR rs9906827 were associated with survival. Survival tree analysis revealed potential gene-gene interactions: patients carrying the unfavorable genotypes of PTEN rs1234219 and TSC1 rs704059 exhibited a 5.24-fold (95% CI: 2.44–11.24) increased risk of recurrence. In combined analysis, with the increasing number of unfavorable genotypes, there was a significant trend of higher risk of recurrence and death (P for trend<0.001) in Cox proportional hazard regression analysis, and shorter event (recurrence and death) free survival in Kaplan-Meier estimates (P log rank<0.001). This study strongly suggests that genetic variations in PI3K-AKT-mTOR pathway play an important role in bladder cancer development. The identified SNPs, if validated in further studies, may become valuable biomarkers in assessing an individual's cancer risk, predicting prognosis and treatment response, and facilitating physicians to make individualized treatment decisions. ^

KAT1 is not essential for stomatal opening

It is generally accepted that K+ uptake into guard cells via inward-rectifying K+ channels is required for stomatal opening. To test whether the guard cell K+ channel KAT1 is essential for stomatal opening, a knockout mutant, KAT1∷En-1, was isolated from an En-1 mutagenized Arabidopsis thaliana population. Stomatal action and K+ uptake, however, were not impaired in KAT1-deficient plants. Reverse transcription–PCR experiments with isolated guard cell protoplasts showed that in addition to KAT1, the K+ channels AKT1, AKT2/3, AtKC1, and KAT2 were expressed in this cell type. In impalement measurements, intact guard cells exhibited inward-rectifying K+ currents across the plasma membrane of both wild-type and KAT1∷En-1 plants. This study demonstrates that multiple K+ channel transcripts exist in guard cells and that KAT1 is not essential for stomatal action.

Dietary supplementation of vitamin E and -lipoic acid upregulates cell growth and signaling genes in rat myocardium

The efficacy of antioxidant supplementation in the prevention of cardiovascular disease appears equivocal, however the use of more potent antioxidant combinations than those traditionally used may exert a more positive effect. We have shown previously that supplementation of vitamin E and α-lipoic acid increases cardiac performance during post-ischemia reperfusion in older rats and increases Bcl-2 levels in endothelial cells. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of vitamin E and α-lipoic acid supplementation on myocardial gene expression with a view to determine their mechanism of action. Young male rats received either a control (n=7) or vitamin E and α-lipoic acid supplemented diet (n=8) for 14 weeks. RNA from myocardial tissue was then amplified and samples were pooled within groups and competitively hybridized to 5K oligonucleotide rat microarrays. The relative expression of each gene was then compared to the control sample. Animals that received the antioxidant-supplemented diet exhibited upregulation (>1.5×) of 13 genes in the myocardium with 2 genes downregulated.� �Upregulated genes include those involved in cell growth and maintenance (LynB, Csf1r, Akt2, Tp53), cell signaling (LynB, Csf1r) and signal transduction (Pacsin2, Csf1r). Downregulated genes encode thyroid (Thrsp) and F-actin binding proteins (Nexilin).