Sanitation assessment of wastewater treated by stabilization ponds for potential reuse in agricultural irrigation sanitation assessment

Wastewater reuse has become an important alternative to agricultural irrigation; on the other hand, it poses concern with regard to public health. Total coliform and Escherichia coli concentration, presence of helminth eggs and Salmonella, and physical-chemical parameters were evaluated in raw and treated wastewater. Chemical and biochemical oxygen demand removal efficiency was 74.6 and 77.9%, respectively. As for organic nitrogen, total phosphorus, and total suspended solids, total efficiency removal was 17.4, 12.5, and 32.9%, respectively. The average density of total coliforms and E. coli was 3.5 x 10(9) and 1.8 x 10(8) MPN/100 mL and 1.1 x 10(7) MPN/100 mL and 3.9 x 10(5) MPN/100 mL for raw and treated wastewater, respectively. Ascaris eggs were observed in 80.8% of the samples collected, and viable eggs in 42.3% of the samples. Salmonella was detected in 36.4% of the samples. The values observed in treated wastewater did not show the adequate bacteriological quality, as recommended by World Health Organization (Geneva, Switzerland). Therefore, additional measures should be taken to achieve an improved microbiological and parasitological quality.

The role of information on farmers' willingness to use recycled water for irrigation

In this paper are identified several factors which affect a potential user's willingness to use recycled water for agricultural irrigation. This study is based on the results of a survey carried out among farmers in the island of Crete, Greece. It was found that a higher level of income and education are positively correlated with a respondent's willingness to use recycled water. Income and education are also positively correlated with a potential user's sensitivity to information on the advantages of using non-conventional water resources. Overall, extra information on the advantages of recycled water has a statistically significant impact on reported degrees of willingness to use recycled water.

To allow producers to devote acreage conservation reserve acreage to water storage for irrigation [microform] : joint hearing before the Subcommittee on Cotton, Rice, and Sugar and the Subcommittee on Wheat, Soybeans, and Feed Grains of the Committee on Agriculture, House of Representatives, One Hundredth Congress, second session, on H.R. 5103, October 6, 1988.

"Serial no. 100-112."

Water-supply and irrigation papers of the United States Geological Survey.

Some nos. published in House Document series.

Is prosopis a curse or a blessing? : An ecological economic analysis of an invasive alien tree species in Sudan.

The issue of the usefulness of different prosopis species versus their status as weeds is a matter of hot debate around the world. The tree Prosopis juliflora had until 2000 been proclaimed weedy in its native range in South America and elsewhere in the dry tropics. P. juliflora or mesquite has a 90-year history in Sudan. During the early 1990s a popular opinion in central Sudan and the Sudanese Government had begun to consider prosopis a noxious weed and a problematic tree species due to its aggressive ability to invade farmlands and pastures, especially in and around irrigated agricultural lands. As a consequence prosopis was officially declared an invasive alien species also in Sudan, and in 1995 a presidential decree for its eradication was issued. Using a total economic valuation (TEV) approach, this study analysed the impacts of prosopis on the local livelihoods in two contrasting irrigated agricultural schemes. Primarily a problem-based approach was used in which the derivation of non-market values was captured using ecological economic tools. In the New Halfa Irrigation Scheme in Kassala State, four separate household surveys were conducted due to diversity between the respective population groups. The main aim was here to study the magnitude of environmental economic benefits and costs derived from the invasion of prosopis in a large agricultural irrigation scheme on clay soil. Another study site, the Gandato Irrigation Scheme in River Nile State represented impacts from prosopis that an irrigation scheme was confronted with on sandy soil in the arid and semi-arid ecozones along the main River Nile. The two cases showed distinctly different effects of prosopis but both indicated the benefits to exceed the costs. The valuation on clay soil in New Halfa identified a benefit/cost ratio of 2.1, while this indicator equalled 46 on the sandy soils of Gandato. The valuation results were site-specific and based on local market prices. The most important beneficial impacts of prosopis on local livelihoods were derived from free-grazing forage for livestock, environmental conservation of the native vegetation, wood and non-wood forest products, as well as shelterbelt effects. The main social costs from prosopis were derived from weeding and clearing it from farm lands and from canalsides, from thorn injuries to humans and livestock, as well as from repair expenses vehicle tyre punctures. Of the population groups, the tenants faced most of the detrimental impacts, while the landless population groups (originating from western and eastern Sudan) as well as the nomads were highly dependent on this tree resource. For the Gandato site the monetized benefit-cost ratio of 46 still excluded several additional beneficial impacts of prosopis in the area that were difficult to quantify and monetize credibly. In River Nile State the beneficial impact could thus be seen as completely outweighing the costs of prosopis. The results can contributed to the formulation of national and local forest and agricultural policies related to prosopis in Sudan and also be used in other countries faced with similar impacts caused by this tree.

THE EFFECTS OF SURFACTANT ON SIMPLEX NOZZLE SPRAY BEHAVIOR AND ITS COMPARISON TO LIQUID FUELS

Pressure-swirl nozzles (simplex nozzles) are used in various field applications such as aero-engines, power generation, spray painting and agricultural irrigation. For this particular nozzle, research in the past decade has dealt with the development of numerical models for predicting droplet distribution profiles. Although these results have been valuable, the experimental results have been contradictory, therefore fundamental understanding of the influence of properties in nozzle is important. This paper experimentally investigates the effect of surfactants on breakup and coalescence. Since most of the fuels and biofuels have low surface tension compared to water, a comparative analysis between a surfactant solution and a liquid fuel is imperative. For this experimental study, a simplex nozzle characterized as flow number 0.4 will be utilized. The injection pressures will range from 0.3 - 4Mpa while altering the surface tension from 72 to 28mN/m. By applying Phase Doppler Particle Anemometry (PDPA) which is a non-intrusive laser diagnostic technique, the differences in spray characteristics due to spray surface tension can be highlighted. The average droplet diameter decreases for a low surface tension fluid in the axial direction in comparison to pure water. The average velocity of droplets is surprisingly lower in the same spray zone. Measurements made in the radial direction show no significant changes, but at the locations close to the nozzle, water droplets have larger diameter and velocity. The results indicate the breakup and coalescence regimes have been altered when surface tension is lowered. A decrease in surface tension alters the breakup length while increasing the spray angle. Moreover, higher injection pressure shortens the breakup length and decrease in overall diameter of the droplets. By performing this experimental study the fundamentals of spray dynamics, such as spray formation, liquid breakup length, and droplet breakup regimes can be observed as a function of surface tension and how a surrogate fuel compares with a real fuel for experimental purposes. This knowledge potentially will lead to designing a better atomizer or new biofuels.

Análise probabilística de segurança de barragens gravidade de betão

Trabalho Final de Mestrado para obtenção do grau de Mestre em Engenharia Civil na Área de Especialização de Estruturas

River ecosystems at risk

Worldwide water managers are increasingly challenged to allocate sufficient and affordable water supplies to different water use sectors without further degrading river ecosystems and their valuable services to mankind. Since 1950 human population almost tripled, water abstractions increased by a factor of four, and the number of large dam constructions is about eight times higher today. From a hydrological perspective, the alteration of river flows (temporally and spatially) is one of the main consequences of global change and further impairments can be expected given growing population pressure and projected climate change. Implications have been addressed in numerous hydrological studies, but with a clear focus on human water demands. Ecological water requirements have often been neglected or addressed in a very simplistic manner, particularly from the large-scale perspective. With his PhD thesis, Christof Schneider took up the challenge to assess direct (dam operation and water abstraction) and indirect (climate change) impacts of human activities on river flow regimes and evaluate the consequences for river ecosystems by using a modeling approach. The global hydrology model WaterGAP3 (developed at CESR) was applied and further developed within this thesis to carry out several model experiments and assess anthropogenic river flow regime modifications and their effects on river ecosystems. To address the complexity of ecological water requirements the assessment is based on three main ideas: (i) the natural flow paradigm, (ii) the perception that different flows have different ecological functions, and (iii) the flood pulse concept. The thesis shows that WaterGAP3 performs well in representing ecologically relevant flow characteristics on a daily time step, and therefore justifies its application within this research field. For the first time a methodology was established to estimate bankfull flow on a 5 by 5 arc minute grid cell raster globally, which is a key parameter in eFlow assessments as it marks the point where rivers hydraulically connect to adjacent floodplains. Management of dams and water consumption pose a risk to floodplains and riparian wetlands as flood volumes are significantly reduced. The thesis highlights that almost one-third of 93 selected Ramsar sites are seriously affected by modified inundation patterns today, and in the future, inundation patterns are very likely to be further impaired as a result of new major dam initiatives and climate change. Global warming has been identified as a major threat to river flow regimes as rising temperatures, declining snow cover, changing precipitation patterns and increasing climate variability are expected to seriously modify river flow regimes in the future. Flow regimes in all climate zones will be affected, in particular the polar zone (Northern Scandinavia) with higher river flows during the year and higher flood peaks in spring. On the other side, river flows in the Mediterranean are likely to be even more intermittent in the future because of strong reductions in mean summer precipitation as well as a decrease in winter precipitation, leading to an increasing number of zero flow events creating isolated pools along the river and transitions from lotic to lentic waters. As a result, strong impacts on river ecosystem integrity can be expected. Already today, large amounts of water are withdrawn in this region for agricultural irrigation and climate change is likely to exacerbate the current situation of water shortages.

Avaliação do potencial tóxico de águas oriundas de irrigação agrícola no Baixo-Açu/RN: um problema socioambiental

For many decades the problematic raised about the indiscriminate use of pesticides in modern agriculture has incited the interest of many researchers to discover the effects caused by such products in the environment and consequently in the life of the ones which use that products (farmers) and those people who live in places next to the agricultural areas. Facing these facts, this research had the intention of comprehend the environmental perception of habitants of the Distrito Irrigado do Baixo-Açu (DIBA), located in the semiarid of Rio Grande do Norte, by using agro toxics and its possible environmental effects, as well as evaluate the levels of toxicity of waters from agricultural runoff in this region by using eco-toxicological exams with Ceriodaphnia silvestii. Were done 86 interviews with dwellers and farmers from DIBA. With the results reached in the evaluation of the interviews it was possible to identify that one of major problems is the inappropriate discard of empty packs of the pesticides used at that place. The samples collected for eco-toxicological evaluation showed a variation in its toxicity, once that the point of collect which receives waters from different cultures presented in four out of five samples toxicity for the tested species. Therefore, it concludes that the indiscriminate use of pesticides agricultural practice presented a potential to pollute to the irrigation waters, and the absence of elucidation by the farmers about the manipulation of these products contribute to the risk of environmental contamination and the possible decrease of the quality of life of the dwellers of the region

Avaliação hidráulica e de resistência a tração de dois modelos de mangueiras gotejadoras

Pós-graduação em Agronomia (Irrigação e Drenagem) - FCA

Pesquisa de ovos de helmintos e cistos de protozoários parasitos em recursos hídridos destinados à irrigação agrícola e/ou consumo animal na região peri-urbana de Botucatu-SP-Brasil

Pós-graduação em Medicina Veterinária - FMVZ

The Influence of Municipal Treated Wastewater on Morpho-Physiological Characteristics of Eucalyptus Plants

The effects of municipal-treated wastewater on growth and gas exchange characteristics were studied in eucalyptus plants cultivated in a greenhouse under continuous sub irrigation with 70 % Long Ashton solution as a control, 100 % treated wastewater, and treated wastewater diluted 50 % with tap water. Irrigation with wastewater resulted in a reduction of total dry matter per plant and the shoot-to-root ratio and increased specific leaf mass, irrespective of the dilution. The gas exchange characteristics were adversely affected by the irrigation with wastewater, with photosynthetic rates been negatively affected. Total chlorophyll and carotenoids content were reduced in plants grown under treated wastewater. The results demonstrated that when the eucalyptus plants were grown under treated wastewater as the only source of mineral nutrients they were able to produce nearly 50 % of the dry matter produced by the plants grown under appropriate mineral nutrient supply, irrespective of the dilution. Therefore, the contribution of mineral nutrients and organic matter from the treated wastewater used as agricultural irrigation will be significant in lower the fertilizer rates without reducing dry matter production per plant.

Hydrogeologic Setting and Ground-Water Flow Simulations of the Eastern High Plains Regional Study Area, Nebraska

The transport of anthropogenic and natural contaminants to public-supply wells was evaluated in a part of the High Plains aquifer near York, Nebraska, as part of the U.S. Geological Survey National Water-Quality Assessment Program. The aquifer in the Eastern High Plains regional study area is composed of Quaternary alluvial deposits typical of the High Plains aquifer in eastern Nebraska and Kansas, is an important water source for agricultural irrigation and public water supply, and is susceptible and vulnerable to contamination. A six-layer, steady-state ground-water flow model of the High Plains aquifer near York, Nebraska, was constructed and calibrated to average conditions for the time period from 1997 to 2001. The calibrated model and advective particle-tracking simulations were used to compute areas contributing recharge and travel times from recharge areas to selected public-supply wells. Model results indicate recharge from agricultural irrigation return flow and precipitation (about 89 percent of inflow) provides most of the ground-water inflow, whereas the majority of ground-water discharge is to pumping wells (about 78 percent of outflow). Particle-tracking results indicate areas contributing recharge to public-supply wells extend northwest because of the natural ground-water gradient from the northwest to the southeast across the study area. Particle-tracking simulations indicate most ground-water travel times from areas contributing recharge range from 20 to more than 100 years but that some ground water, especially that in the lower confined unit, originates at the upgradient model boundary instead of at the water table in the study area and has travel times of thousands of years.

Parasitological risk assessment from wastewater reuse for disposal in soil in developing countries

The purpose of this work is to analyze the parasitological risks of treated wastewater reuse from a stabilization pond in the city of Piracicaba, in the State of Sao Paulo (Brazil), and the level of treatment required to protect public health. Samples were taken from raw and treated wastewater in stabilization ponds and submitted to a parasitological, microbiological and physicochemical analysis. The study revealed on treated wastewater the presence of Ascaris sp. and Entamoeba coli with an average density of 1 cysts L-1 and 6 eggs L-1, respectively. For Ascaris, the annual risks of infection due to the accidental ingestion of wastewater irrigation were 7.5 x 10(-2) in 208 days and 8.7 x 10(-2) in 240 days. For Total Coliforms and Escherichia coli in treated wastewater, the average density was 1.0 x 10(5) MPN/100 ml and 2.7 x 10(4) MPN/100 ml respectively, representing 99% and 94% removal efficiency, respectively. For BOD, COD, TS and TSS removal efficiency was 69, 80, 50 and 71%, respectively. The removal efficiency for nitrogen; ammonia nitrogen and total phosphate was 24, 19 and 68%, respectively. The average density of helminths eggs in treated wastewater is higher compared to the density of the limit value of <= 1 egg L-1 and tolerable risk is above the level recommended by the World Health Organization. Multiple barriers are necessary for the reduction of organic matter, chemical contaminants and parasites from treated wastewater. Standards for the sanitary control of treated wastewater to be reused in agricultural irrigation areas should be compiled for developing countries in order to minimize public health risks.

La reutilización de efluentes depurados en España: retrospectiva, desarrollo del marco normativo, estudio de las tecnologías de regeneración frente a los biorreactores de membrana y sus costes en función del uso

La reutilización de efluentes depurados siempre ha sido una opción en lugares con déficit coyuntural o estructural de recursos hídricos, se haya o no procedido a la regulación y planificación de esta práctica. La necesidad se crea a partir de las demandas de una zona, normalmente riego agrícola, que ven un mejor desarrollo de su actividad por contar con este recurso. España es el país de la UE que más caudal reutiliza, y está dentro de los diez primeros a nivel mundial. La regulación de esta práctica por el RD 1620/2007, ayudó a incorporar la reutilización de efluentes depurados a la planificación hidrológica como parte de los programas de medidas, con objeto de mitigar presiones, como son las extracciones de agua superficial y subterránea, o mejoras medioambientales evitando un vertido. El objeto de este trabajo es conocer la situación de la reutilización de efluentes depurados en España, los diferentes escenarios y planteamientos de esta actividad, el desarrollo del marco normativo y su aplicabilidad, junto a los tratamientos que permiten alcanzar los límites de calidad establecidos en la normativa vigente, en función de los distintos usos. Además, se aporta un análisis de costes de las distintas unidades de tratamiento y tipologías de líneas de regeneración, tanto de las utilizadas después de un tratamiento secundario como de otras opciones de depuración, como son los biorreactores de membrana (MBRs). Para el desarrollo de estos objetivos, en primer lugar, se aborda el conocimiento de la situación de la reutilización en España a través de una base de datos diseñada para cubrir todos los aspectos de esta actividad: datos de la estación depuradora de aguas residuales (EDAR), de la estación regeneradora (ERA), caudales depurados, reutilizados, volúmenes utilizados y ubicación de los distintos usos, tipos de líneas de tratamiento, calidades del agua reutilizada, etc. Las principales fuentes de información son las Confederaciones Hidrográficas (CCHH) a través de las concesiones de uso del agua depurada, las entidades de saneamiento y depuración de las distintas comunidades autónomas (CCAA), ayuntamientos, Planes Hidrológicos de Cuenca (PHC) y visitas a las zonas más emblemáticas. Además, se revisan planes y programas con el fin de realizar una retrospectiva de cómo se ha ido consolidando y desarrollando esta práctica en las distintas zonas de la geografía española. Se han inventariado 322 sistemas de reutilización y 216 tratamientos de regeneración siendo el más extendido la filtración mediante filtro arena seguido de una desinfección mediante hipoclorito, aunque este tratamiento se ha ido sustituyendo por un físico-químico con decantación lamelar, filtro de arena y radiación ultravioleta, tratamiento de regeneración convencional (TRC), y otros tratamientos que pueden incluir membranas, tratamientos de regeneración avanzados (TRA), con dosificación de hipoclorito como desinfección residual, para adaptarse al actual marco normativo. El uso más extendido es el agrícola con el 70% del caudal total reutilizado, estimado en 408 hm3, aunque la capacidad de los tratamientos de regeneración esperada para 2015, tras el Plan Nacional de Reutilización de Aguas (PNRA), es tres veces superior. Respecto al desarrollo normativo, en las zonas donde la reutilización ha sido pionera, las administraciones competentes han ido desarrollando diferentes recomendaciones de calidad y manejo de este tipo de agua. El uso agrícola, y en zonas turísticas, el riego de campos de golf, fueron los dos primeros usos que tuvieron algún tipo de recomendación incluso reglamentación. Esta situación inicial, sin una normativa a nivel estatal ni recomendaciones europeas, creó cierta incertidumbre en el avance de la reutilización tanto a nivel de concesiones como de planificación. En la actualidad sigue sin existir una normativa internacional para la reutilización y regeneración de efluentes depurados. Las recomendaciones de referencia a nivel mundial, y en concreto para el uso agrícola, son las de la OMS (Organización Mundial de la Salud) publicadas 1989, con sus posteriores revisiones y ampliaciones (OMS, 2006). Esta norma combina tratamientos básicos de depuración y unas buenas prácticas basadas en diferentes niveles de protección para evitar problemas sanitarios. Otra normativa que ha sido referencia en el desarrollo del marco normativo en países donde se realiza esta práctica, son las recomendaciones dadas por la Agencia Medioambiente Estadunidense (USEPA, 2012) o las publicadas por el Estado de California (Título 22, 2001). Estas normas establecen unos indicadores y valores máximos dónde el tratamiento de regeneración es el responsable de la calidad final en función del uso. Durante 2015, la ISO trabajaba en un documento para el uso urbano donde se muestra tanto los posibles parámetros que habría que controlar como la manera de actuar para evitar posibles riesgos. Por otro lado, la Comisión Europea (CE) viene impulsando desde el 2014 la reutilización de aguas depuradas dentro del marco de la Estrategia Común de Implantación de la Directiva Marco del Agua, y fundamentalmente a través del grupo de trabajo de “Programas de medidas”. Para el desarrollo de esta iniciativa se está planteando sacar para 2016 una guía de recomendaciones que podría venir a completar el marco normativo de los distintos Estados Miembros (EM). El Real Decreto 1620/2007, donde se establece el marco jurídico de la reutilización de efluentes depurados, tiende más a la filosofía implantada por la USEPA, aunque la UE parece más partidaria de una gestión del riesgo, donde se establecen unos niveles de tolerancia y unos puntos de control en función de las condiciones socioeconómicas de los distintos Estados, sin entrar a concretar indicadores, valores máximos o tratamientos. Sin embargo, en la normativa estadounidense se indican una serie de tratamientos de regeneración, mientras que, en la española, se hacen recomendaciones a este respecto en una Guía sin validez legal. Por tanto, queda sin regular los procesos para alcanzar estos estándares de calidad, pudiendo ser éstos no apropiados para esta práctica. Es el caso de la desinfección donde el uso de hipoclorito puede generar subproductos indeseables. En la Guía de recomendaciones para la aplicación del RD, publicada por el Ministerio de Agricultura y Medioambiente (MAGRAMA) en 2010, se aclaran cuestiones frecuentes sobre la aplicación del RD, prescripciones técnicas básicas para los sistemas de reutilización, y buenas prácticas en función del uso. Aun así, el RD sigue teniendo deficiencias en su aplicación siendo necesaria una revisión de la misma, como en las frecuencias de muestreo incluso la omisión de algunos parámetros como huevos de nematodos que se ha demostrado ser inexistentes tras un tratamiento de regeneración convencional. En este sentido, existe una tendencia a nivel mundial a reutilizar las aguas con fines de abastecimiento, incluir indicadores de presencia de virus o protozoos, o incluir ciertas tecnologías como las membranas u oxidaciones avanzadas para afrontar temas como los contaminantes emergentes. Otro de los objetivos de este trabajo es el estudio de tipologías de tratamiento en función de los usos establecidos en el RD 1620/2007 y sus costes asociados, siendo base de lo establecido a este respecto en la Guía y PNRA anteriormente indicados. Las tipologías de tratamiento propuestas se dividen en líneas con capacidad de desalar y las que no cuentan con una unidad de desalación de aguas salobres de ósmosis inversa o electrodiálisis reversible. Se realiza esta división al tener actuaciones en zonas costeras donde el agua de mar entra en los colectores, adquiriendo el agua residual un contenido en sales que es limitante en algunos usos. Para desarrollar este objetivo se han estudiado las unidades de tratamiento más implantadas en ERAs españolas en cuanto a fiabilidad para conseguir determinada calidad y coste, tanto de implantación como de explotación. El TRC, tiene un coste de implantación de 28 a 48 €.m-3.d y de explotación de 0,06 a 0,09 €. m-3, mientras que, si se precisara desalar, este coste se multiplica por diez en la implantación y por cinco en la explotación. En caso de los usos que requieren de TRA, como los domiciliarios o algunos industriales, los costes serían de 185 a 398 €.m-3.d en implantación y de 0,14 a 0,20 €.m-3 en explotación. En la selección de tecnologías de regeneración, la capacidad del tratamiento en relación al coste es un indicador fundamental. Este trabajo aporta curvas de tendencia coste-capacidad que sirven de herramienta de selección frente a otros tratamientos de regeneración de reciente implantación como son los MBR, u otros como la desalación de agua de mar o los trasvases entre cuencas dentro de la planificación hidrológica. En España, el aumento de las necesidades de agua de alta calidad en zonas con recursos escasos, aumento de zonas sensibles como puntos de captación para potables, zonas de baño o zonas de producción piscícola, y en ocasiones, el escaso terreno disponible para la implantación de nuevas plantas depuradoras (EDARs), han convertido a los MBRs, en una opción dentro del marco de la reutilización de aguas depuradas. En este trabajo, se estudia esta tecnología frente a los TRC y TRA, aportando igualmente curvas de tendencia coste-capacidad, e identificando cuando esta opción tecnológica puede ser más competitiva frente a los otros tratamientos de regeneración. Un MBR es un tratamiento de depuración de fangos activos donde el decantador secundario es sustituido por un sistema de membranas de UF o MF. La calidad del efluente, por tanto, es la misma que el de una EDAR seguida de un TRA. Los MBRs aseguran una calidad del efluente para todos los usos establecidos en el RD, incluso dan un efluente que permite ser directamente tratado por las unidades de desalación de OI o EDR. La implantación de esta tecnología en España ha tenido un crecimiento exponencial, pasando de 13 instalaciones de menos de 5.000 m3. d-1 en el 2006, a más de 55 instalaciones en operación o construcción a finales del 2014, seis de ellas con capacidades por encima de los 15.000 m3. d-1. Los sistemas de filtración en los MBR son los que marcan la operación y diseño de este tipo de instalaciones. El sistema más implantado en España es de membrana de fibra hueca (MFH), sobre todo para instalaciones de gran capacidad, destacando Zenon que cuenta con el 57% de la capacidad total instalada. La segunda casa comercial con mayor número de plantas es Kubota, con membranas de configuración placa plana (MPP), que cuenta con el 30 % de la capacidad total instalada. Existen otras casas comerciales implantadas en MBR españoles como son Toray, Huber, Koch o Microdym. En este documento se realiza la descripción de los sistemas de filtración de todas estas casas comerciales, aportando información de sus características, parámetros de diseño y operación más relevantes. El estudio de 14 MBRs ha posibilitado realizar otro de los objetivos de este trabajo, la estimación de los costes de explotación e implantación de este tipo de sistemas frente a otras alternativas de tratamiento de regeneración. En este estudio han participado activamente ACA y ESAMUR, entidades públicas de saneamiento y depuración de Cataluña y Murcia respectivamente, que cuentan con una amplia experiencia en la explotación de este tipo de sistemas. Este documento expone los problemas de operación encontrados y sus posibles soluciones, tanto en la explotación como en los futuros diseños de este tipo de plantas. El trabajo concluye que los MBRs son una opción más para la reutilización de efluentes depurados, siendo ventajosos en costes, tanto de implantación como de explotación, respecto a EDARs seguidas de TRA en capacidades por encima de los 10.000 m3.d-1. ABSTRACT The reuse of treated effluent has always been an option in places where a situational or structural water deficit exists, whether regulatory and/or planning efforts are completed or not. The need arises from the demand of a sector, commonly agricultural irrigation, which benefits of this new resource. Within the EU, Spain is ahead in the annual volume of reclaimed water, and is among the top ten countries at a global scale. The regulation of this practice through the Royal Decree 1620/2007 has helped to incorporate the water reuse to the hydrological plans as a part of the programme of measures to mitigate pressures such as surface or ground water extraction, or environmental improvements preventing discharges. The object of this study is to gain an overview of the state of the water reuse in Spain, the different scenarios and approaches to this activity, the development of the legal framework and its enforceability, together with the treatments that achieve the quality levels according to the current law, broken down by applications. Additionally, a cost analysis of technologies and regeneration treatment lines for water reclamation is performed, whereas the regeneration treatment is located after a wastewater treatment or other options such as membrane bioreactors (MBR). To develop the abovementioned objectives, the state of water reuse in Spain is studied by means of a database designed to encompass all aspects of the activity: data from the wastewater treatment plants (WWTP), from the water reclamation plants (WRP), the use of reclaimed water, treated water and reclaimed water annual volumes and qualities, facilities and applications, geographic references, technologies, regeneration treatment lines, etc. The main data providers are the River Basin authorities, through the concession or authorization for water reuse, (sanitary and wastewater treatment managers from the territorial governments, local governments, Hydrological Plans of the River Basins and field visits to the main water reuse systems. Additionally, a review of different plans and programmes on wastewater treatment or water reuse is done, aiming to put the development and consolidation process of this activity in the different regions of Spain in perspective. An inventory of 322 reuse systems and 216 regeneration treatments has been gathered on the database, where the most extended regeneration treatment line was sand filtration followed by hypochlorite disinfection, even though recently it is being replaced by physical–chemical treatment with a lamella settling system, depth sand filtration, and a disinfection with ultraviolet radiation and hypochlorite as residual disinfectant, named conventional regeneration treatment (CRT), and another treatment that may include a membrane process, named advanced regeneration treatment (ART), to adapt to legal requirements. Agricultural use is the most extended, accumulating 70% of the reclaimed demand, estimated at 408 hm3, even though the expected total capacity of WRPs for 2015, after the implementation of the National Water Reuse Plan (NWRP) is three times higher. According to the development of the water reuse legal framework, there were pioneer areas where competent authorities developed different quality and use recommendations for this new resource. Agricultural use and golf course irrigation in touristic areas were the first two uses with recommendations and even legislation. The initial lack of common legislation for water reuse at a national or European level created some doubts which affected the implementation of water reuse, both from a planning and a licensing point of view. Currently there is still a lack of common international legislation regarding water reuse, technologies and applications. Regarding agricultural use, the model recommendations at a global scale are those set by the World Health Organization published in 1989, and subsequent reviews and extensions about risk prevention (WHO, 2006). These documents combine wastewater treatments with basic regeneration treatments reinforced by good practices based on different levels of protection to avoid deleterious health effects. Another relevant legal reference for this practices has been the Environmental Protection Agency of the US (USEPA, 2012), or those published by the State of California (Title 22, 2001). These establish indicator targets and maximum thresholds where regeneration treatment lines are responsible for the final quality according to the different uses. During 2015, the ISO has worked on a document aimed at urban use, where the possible parameters to be monitored together with risk prevention have been studied. On the other hand, the European Commission has been promoting the reuse of treated effluents within the Common Implementation Strategy of the Water Framework Directive, mainly through the work of the Programme of Measures Working Group. Within this context, the publication of a recommendation guide during 2016 is intended, as a useful tool to fill in the legal gaps of different Member States on the matter. The Royal Decree 1620/2007, where the water reuse regulation is set, resembles the principles of the USEPA more closely, even though the EU shows a tendency to prioritize risk assessment by establishing tolerance levels and thresholds according to socioeconomic conditions of the different countries, without going into details of indicators, maximum thresholds or treatments. In contrast, in the US law, regeneration treatments are indicated, while in the Spanish legislation, the only recommendations to this respect are compiled in a non-compulsory guide. Therefore, there is no regulation on the different treatment lines used to achieve the required quality standards, giving room for inappropriate practices in this respect. This is the case of disinfection, where the use of hypochlorite may produce harmful byproducts. In the recommendation Guide for the application of the Royal Decree (RD), published by the Ministry of Agriculture and Environment (MAGRAMA) in 2010, clarifications of typical issues that may arise from the application of the RD are given, as well as basic technical parameters to consider in reuse setups, or good practices according to final use. Even so, the RD still presents difficulties in its application and requires a review on issues such as the sampling frequency of current quality parameters or even the omission of nematode eggs indicator, which have been shown to be absent after CRT. In this regard, there is a global tendency to employ water reuse for drinking water, including indicators for the presence of viruses and protozoans, or to include certain technologies such as membranes or advanced oxidation processes to tackle problems like emerging pollutants. Another of the objectives of this study is to provide different regeneration treatment lines to meet the quality requirements established in the RD 1620/2007 broken down by applications, and to estimate establishment and operational costs. This proposal has been based on what is established in the above mentioned Guide and NWRP. The proposed treatment typologies are divided in treatment trains with desalination, like reverse osmosis or reversible electrodialisis, and those that lack this treatment for brackish water. This separation is done due to coastal facilities, where sea water may permeate the collecting pipes, rising salt contents in the wastewater, hence limiting certain uses. To develop this objective a study of the most common treatment units set up in Spanish WRPs is conducted in terms of treatment train reliability to obtain an acceptable relationship between the required quality and the capital and operational costs. The CRT has an establishment cost of 28 to 48 €.m-3.d and an operation cost of 0.06 to 0.09 €.m-3, while, if desalination was required, these costs would increase tenfold for implementation and fivefold for operation. In the cases of uses that require ART, such as residential or certain industrial uses, the costs would be of 185 to 398 €.m-3.d for implementation and of 0.14 to 0.20 €.m-3 for operation. When selecting regeneration treatment lines, the relation between treatment capacity and cost is a paramount indicator. This project provides cost-capacity models for regeneration treatment trains. These may serve as a tool when selecting between different options to fulfill water demands with MBR facilities, or others such as sea water desalination plants or inter-basin water transfer into a water planning framework. In Spain, the requirement for high quality water in areas with low resource availability, the increasing number of sensitive zones, such as drinking water extraction, recreational bathing areas, fish protected areas and the lack of available land to set up new WWTPs, have turned MBRs into a suitable option for water reuse. In this work this technology is analyzed in contrast to CRT and ART, providing cost-capacity models, and identifying when and where this treatment option may outcompete other regeneration treatments. An MBR is an activated sludge treatment where the secondary settling is substituted by a membrane system of UF or MF. The quality of the effluent is, therefore, comparable to that of a WWTP followed by an ART. MBRs ensure a sufficient quality level for the requirements of the different uses established in the RD, even producing an effluent that can be directly treated in OI or EDR processes. The implementation of this technology in Spain has grown exponentially, growing from 13 facilities with less than 5000 m3.d-1 in 2006 to above 55 facilities operating by the end of 2014, 6 of them with capacities over 15000 m3.d-1. The membrane filtration systems for MBR are the ones that set the pace of operation and design of this type of facilities. The most widespread system in Spain is the hollow fiber membrane configuration, especially on high flow capacities, being Zenon commercial technology, which mounts up to 57% of the total installed capacity, the main contributor. The next commercial technology according to plant number is Kubota, which uses flat sheet membrane configuration, which mounts up to 30% of the total installed capacity. Other commercial technologies exist within the Spanish MBR context, such as Toray, Huber, Koch or Microdym. In this document an analysis of all of these membrane filtration systems is done, providing information about their characteristics and relevant design and operation parameters. The study of 14 full scale running MBRs has enabled to pursue another of the objectives of this work: the estimation of the implementation and operation costs of this type of systems in contrast to other regeneration alternatives. Active participation of ACA and ESAMUR, public wastewater treatment and reuse entities of Cataluña and Murcia respectively, has helped attaining this objective. A number of typical operative problems and their possible solutions are discussed, both for operation and plant design purposes. The conclusion of this study is that MBRs are another option to consider for water reuse, being advantageous in terms of both implementation and operational costs, when compared with WWTPs followed by ART, when considering flow capacities above 10000 m3.d-1.