Physiopathologie des maladies métaboliques héréditaires des acyls-Coenzyme A révélée par l’étude d’un modèle animal déficient en 3-hydroxy-3-méthylglutaryl-Coenzyme A lyase

La plupart des conditions détectées par le dépistage néonatal sont reliées à l'une des enzymes qui dégradent les acyls-CoA mitochondriaux. Le rôle physiopathologique des acyls-CoA dans ces maladies est peu connue, en partie parce que les esters liés au CoA sont intracellulaires et les échantillons tissulaires de patients humains ne sont généralement pas disponibles. Nous avons créé une modèle animal murin de l'une de ces maladies, la déficience en 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA lyase (HL), dans le foie (souris HLLKO). HL est la dernière enzyme de la cétogenèse et de la dégradation de la leucine. Une déficience chronique en HL et les crises métaboliques aigües, produisent chacune un portrait anormal et distinct d'acyls-CoA hépatiques. Ces profils ne sont pas prévisibles à partir des niveaux d'acides organiques urinaires et d'acylcarnitines plasmatiques. La cétogenèse est indétectable dans les hépatocytes HLLKO. Dans les mitochondries HLLKO isolées, le dégagement de 14CO2 à partir du [2-14C]pyruvate a diminué en présence de 2-ketoisocaproate (KIC), un métabolite de la leucine. Au test de tolérance au pyruvate, une mesure de la gluconéogenèse, les souris HLLKO ne présentent pas la réponse hyperglycémique normale. L'hyperammoniémie et l'hypoglycémie, des signes classiques de plusieurs erreurs innées du métabolisme (EIM) des acyls-CoA, surviennent de façon spontanée chez des souris HLLKO et sont inductibles par l'administration de KIC. Une charge en KIC augmente le niveau d'acyls-CoA reliés à la leucine et diminue le niveau d'acétyl-CoA. Les mitochondries des hépatocytes des souris HLLKO traitées avec KIC présentent un gonflement marqué. L'hyperammoniémie des souris HLLKO répond au traitement par l'acide N-carbamyl-L-glutamique. Ce composé permet de contourner une enzyme acétyl-CoA-dépendante essentielle pour l’uréogenèse, le N-acétylglutamate synthase. Ceci démontre un mécanisme d’hyperammoniémie lié aux acyls-CoA. Dans une deuxième EIM des acyls-CoA, la souris SCADD, déficiente en déshydrogénase des acyls-CoA à chaînes courtes. Le profil des acyls-CoA hépatiques montre un niveau élevé du butyryl-CoA particulièrement après un jeûne et après une charge en triglycérides à chaîne moyenne précurseurs du butyryl-CoA.

Étude du polymorphisme rs3846662 de l’HMGCR dans le cerveau et le système périphérique

Dans cette thèse, l’impact du polymorphisme rs3846662 sur l’épissage alternatif de la 3-hydroxy-3-méthylglutaryl coenzyme A réductase (HMGCR) a été investigué in vivo, chez des patients atteints d’hypercholestérolémie familiale (HF) ou de maladie d’Alzheimer (MA). Le premier manuscrit adresse la problématique de la normalisation de la quantification relative des ARNm par PCR quantitative. Les découvertes présentées dans ce manuscrit nous ont permis de déterminer avec un haut niveau de confiance les gènes de référence à utiliser pour la quantification relative des niveaux d’ARNm de l’HMGCR dans des échantillons de sang (troisième manuscrit) et de tissus cérébraux post-mortem (quatrième manuscrit). Dans le deuxième manuscrit, nous démontrons grâce à l’emploi de trois cohortes de patients distinctes, soit la population canadienne française du Québec et les deux populations nord américaines « Alzheimer’s Disease Cooperative Study (ADCS) » et « Alzheimer’s Disease Neuroimaging Initiative (ADNI) », que le génotype AA au locus rs3846662 confère à ces porteurs une protection considérable contre la MA. Les femmes porteuses de ce génotype voient leur risque de MA diminuer de près de 50% et l’âge d’apparition de leurs premiers symptômes retarder de 3.6 ans. Les porteurs de l’allèle à risque APOE4 voient pour leur part leurs niveaux de plaques séniles et dégénérescences neurofibrillaires diminuer significativement en présence du génotype AA. Enfin, les individus atteints de déficit cognitif léger et porteurs à la fois de l’allèle APOE4 et du génotype protecteur AA voient leur risque de convertir vers la MA chuter de 76 à 27%. Dans le troisième manuscrit, nous constatons que les individus atteints d’HF et porteurs du génotype AA ont, contrairement au modèle établi chez les gens normaux, des niveaux plus élevés de cholestérol total et de LDL-C avant traitement comparativement aux porteurs de l’allèle G. Le fait que cette association n’est observée que chez les non porteurs de l’APOE4 et que les femmes porteuses du génotype AA présentent à la fois une augmentation des niveaux d’ARNm totaux et une résistance aux traitements par statines, nous indique que ce génotype influencerait non seulement l’épissage alternatif, mais également la transcription de l’HMGCR. Comme une revue exhaustive de la littérature ne révèle aucune étude abondant dans ce sens, nos résultats suggèrent l’existence de joueurs encore inconnus qui viennent influencer la relation entre le génotype AA, l’épissage alternatif et les niveaux d’ARNm de l’HMGCR. Dans le quatrième manuscrit, l’absence d’associations entre le génotype AA et les niveaux d’ARNm Δ13 ou de protéines HMGCR nous suggère fortement que ce polymorphisme est non fonctionnel dans le SNC affecté par la MA. Une étude approfondie de la littérature nous a permis d’étayer cette hypothèse puisque les niveaux de HNRNPA1, la ribonucléoprotéine influencée par l’allèle au locus rs3846662, sont considérablement réduits dans la MA et le vieillissement. Il est donc proposé que les effets protecteurs contre la MA associés au génotype AA soient le résultat d’une action indirecte sur le processus physiopathologique.

Étude du polymorphisme rs3846662 de l’HMGCR dans le cerveau et le système périphérique

Dans cette thèse, l’impact du polymorphisme rs3846662 sur l’épissage alternatif de la 3-hydroxy-3-méthylglutaryl coenzyme A réductase (HMGCR) a été investigué in vivo, chez des patients atteints d’hypercholestérolémie familiale (HF) ou de maladie d’Alzheimer (MA). Le premier manuscrit adresse la problématique de la normalisation de la quantification relative des ARNm par PCR quantitative. Les découvertes présentées dans ce manuscrit nous ont permis de déterminer avec un haut niveau de confiance les gènes de référence à utiliser pour la quantification relative des niveaux d’ARNm de l’HMGCR dans des échantillons de sang (troisième manuscrit) et de tissus cérébraux post-mortem (quatrième manuscrit). Dans le deuxième manuscrit, nous démontrons grâce à l’emploi de trois cohortes de patients distinctes, soit la population canadienne française du Québec et les deux populations nord américaines « Alzheimer’s Disease Cooperative Study (ADCS) » et « Alzheimer’s Disease Neuroimaging Initiative (ADNI) », que le génotype AA au locus rs3846662 confère à ces porteurs une protection considérable contre la MA. Les femmes porteuses de ce génotype voient leur risque de MA diminuer de près de 50% et l’âge d’apparition de leurs premiers symptômes retarder de 3.6 ans. Les porteurs de l’allèle à risque APOE4 voient pour leur part leurs niveaux de plaques séniles et dégénérescences neurofibrillaires diminuer significativement en présence du génotype AA. Enfin, les individus atteints de déficit cognitif léger et porteurs à la fois de l’allèle APOE4 et du génotype protecteur AA voient leur risque de convertir vers la MA chuter de 76 à 27%. Dans le troisième manuscrit, nous constatons que les individus atteints d’HF et porteurs du génotype AA ont, contrairement au modèle établi chez les gens normaux, des niveaux plus élevés de cholestérol total et de LDL-C avant traitement comparativement aux porteurs de l’allèle G. Le fait que cette association n’est observée que chez les non porteurs de l’APOE4 et que les femmes porteuses du génotype AA présentent à la fois une augmentation des niveaux d’ARNm totaux et une résistance aux traitements par statines, nous indique que ce génotype influencerait non seulement l’épissage alternatif, mais également la transcription de l’HMGCR. Comme une revue exhaustive de la littérature ne révèle aucune étude abondant dans ce sens, nos résultats suggèrent l’existence de joueurs encore inconnus qui viennent influencer la relation entre le génotype AA, l’épissage alternatif et les niveaux d’ARNm de l’HMGCR. Dans le quatrième manuscrit, l’absence d’associations entre le génotype AA et les niveaux d’ARNm Δ13 ou de protéines HMGCR nous suggère fortement que ce polymorphisme est non fonctionnel dans le SNC affecté par la MA. Une étude approfondie de la littérature nous a permis d’étayer cette hypothèse puisque les niveaux de HNRNPA1, la ribonucléoprotéine influencée par l’allèle au locus rs3846662, sont considérablement réduits dans la MA et le vieillissement. Il est donc proposé que les effets protecteurs contre la MA associés au génotype AA soient le résultat d’une action indirecte sur le processus physiopathologique.

Inhibition of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme a reductase by cytosolic proteins - real or artifact

The inhibitory effect of FeSO4-dependent cytosolic protein on microsomal HMGCoA reductase is on the enzyme activity and not an artifact of loss of the product, mevalonate, through phosphorylation, unlike that of ATP.Mg effect.

Feedback-type inhibition of activity of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme a reductase by ubiquinone

Accompanying the decrease in serum cholesterol and increase in concentration of ubiquinone in liver and its microsomes, the activity, but not the protein, of HMG-CoA reductase decreased in ubiquinone-supplemented rats. A soluble 58-kDa preparation of HMG-CoA reductase was partially inhibited on addition of ubiquinone indicating a possible feedback type of action.

The Role of the 3-Hydroxy 3-Methylglutaryl Coenzyme A Reductase Cytosolic Domain in Karmellae Biogenesis

In all cells examined, specific endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membrane arrays are induced in response to increased levels of the ER membrane protein 3-hydroxy 3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) reductase. In yeast, expression of Hmg1p, one of two yeast HMG-CoA reductase isozymes, induces assembly of nuclear-associated ER stacks called karmellae. Understanding the features of HMG-CoA reductase that signal karmellae biogenesis would provide useful insights into the regulation of membrane biogenesis. The HMG-CoA reductase protein consists of two domains, a multitopic membrane domain and a cytosolic catalytic domain. Previous studies had indicated that the HMG-CoA reductase membrane domain was exclusively responsible for generation of ER membrane proliferations. Surprisingly, we discovered that this conclusion was incorrect: sequences at the carboxyl terminus of HMG-CoA reductase can profoundly affect karmellae biogenesis. Specifically, truncations of Hmg1p that removed or shortened the carboxyl terminus were unable to induce karmellae assembly. This result indicated that the membrane domain of Hmg1p was not sufficient to signal for karmellae assembly. Using β-galactosidase fusions, we demonstrated that the carboxyl terminus was unlikely to simply serve as an oligomerization domain. Our working hypothesis is that a truncated or misfolded cytosolic domain prevents proper signaling for karmellae by interfering with the required tertiary structure of the membrane domain.

Study of the 3-Hydroxy Eicosanoyl-Coenzyme A Dehydratase and (E)-2,3 Enoyl-Coenzyme A Reductase Involved in Acyl-Coenzyme A Elongation in Etiolated Leek Seedlings1

(R,S)-[1-14C]3-Hydroxy eicosanoyl-coenzyme A (CoA) has been chemically synthesized to study the 3-hydroxy acyl-CoA dehydratase involved in the acyl-CoA elongase of etiolated leek (Allium porrum L.) seedling microsomes. 3-Hydroxy eicosanoyl-CoA (3-OH C20:0-CoA) dehydration led to the formation of (E)-2,3 eicosanoyl-CoA, which has been characterized. Our kinetic studies have determined the optimal conditions of the dehydration and also resolved the stereospecificity requirement of the dehydratase for (R)-3-OH C20:0-CoA. Isotopic dilution experiments showed that 3-hydroxy acyl-CoA dehydratase had a marked preference for (R)-3-OH C20:0-CoA. Moreover, the very-long-chain synthesis using (R)-3-OH C20:0-CoA isomer and [2-14C]malonyl-CoA was higher than that using the (S) isomer, whatever the malonyl-CoA and the 3-OH C20:0-CoA concentrations. We have also used [1-14C]3-OH C20:0-CoA to investigate the reductant requirement of the enoyl-CoA reductase of the acyl-CoA elongase complex. In the presence of NADPH, [1-14C]3-OH C20:0-CoA conversion was stimulated. Aside from the product of dehydration, i.e. (E)-2,3 eicosanoyl-CoA, we detected eicosanoyl-CoA resulting from the reduction of (E)-2,3 eicosanoyl-CoA. When we replaced NADPH with NADH, the eicosanoyl-CoA was 8- to 10-fold less abundant. Finally, in the presence of malonyl-CoA and NADPH or NADH, [1-14C]3-OH C20:0-CoA led to the synthesis of very-long-chain fatty acids. This synthesis was measured using [1-14C]3-OH C20:0-CoA and malonyl-CoA or (E)-2,3 eicosanoyl-CoA and [2-14C]malonyl-CoA. In both conditions and in the presence of NADPH, the acyl-CoA elongation activity was about 60 nmol mg−1 h−1, which is the highest ever reported for a plant system.

Arachidonic Acid Alters Tomato HMG Expression and Fruit Growth and Induces 3-Hydroxy-3-Methylglutaryl Coenzyme A Reductase-Independent Lycopene Accumulation1

Regulation of isoprenoid end-product synthesis required for normal growth and development in plants is not well understood. To investigate the extent to which specific genes for the enzyme 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase (HMGR) are involved in end-product regulation, we manipulated expression of the HMG1 and HMG2 genes in tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) fruit using arachidonic acid (AA). In developing young fruit AA blocked fruit growth, inhibited HMG1, and activated HMG2 expression. These results are consistent with other reports indicating that HMG1 expression is closely correlated with growth processes requiring phytosterol production. In mature-green fruit AA strongly induced the expression of HMG2, PSY1 (the gene for phytoene synthase), and lycopene accumulation before the normal onset of carotenoid synthesis and ripening. The induction of lycopene synthesis was not blocked by inhibition of HMGR activity using mevinolin, suggesting that cytoplasmic HMGR is not required for carotenoid synthesis. Our results are consistent with the function of an alternative plastid isoprenoid pathway (the Rohmer pathway) that appears to direct the production of carotenoids during tomato fruit ripening.

3-Methylcrotonyl-Coenzyme A Carboxylase Is a Component of the Mitochondrial Leucine Catabolic Pathway in Plants1

3-Methylcrotonyl-coenzyme A carboxylase (MCCase) is a mitochondrial biotin-containing enzyme whose metabolic function is not well understood in plants. In soybean (Glycine max) seedlings the organ-specific and developmentally induced changes in MCCase expression are regulated by mechanisms that control the accumulation of MCCase mRNA and the activity of the enzyme. During soybean cotyledon development, when seed-storage proteins are degraded, leucine (Leu) accumulation peaks transiently at 8 d after planting. The coincidence between peak MCCase expression and the decline in Leu content provides correlative evidence that MCCase is involved in the mitochondrial catabolism of Leu. Direct evidence for this conclusion was obtained from radiotracer metabolic studies using extracts from isolated mitochondria. These experiments traced the metabolic fate of [U-14C]Leu and NaH14CO3, the latter of which was incorporated into methylglutaconyl-coenzyme A (CoA) via MCCase. These studies directly demonstrate that plant mitochondria can catabolize Leu via the following scheme: Leu → α-ketoisocaproate → isovaleryl-CoA → 3-methylcrotonyl-CoA → 3-methylglutaconyl-CoA → 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA → acetoacetate + acetyl-CoA. These findings demonstrate for the first time, to our knowledge, that the enzymes responsible for Leu catabolism are present in plant mitochondria. We conclude that a primary metabolic role of MCCase in plants is the catabolism of Leu.

(+)-Abscisic Acid Metabolism, 3-Ketoacyl-Coenzyme A Synthase Gene Expression, and Very-Long-Chain Monounsaturated Fatty Acid Biosynthesis in Brassica napus Embryos1

Microspore-derived embryos of Brassica napus cv Reston were used to examine the effects of exogenous (+)-abscisic acid (ABA) and related compounds on the accumulation of very-long-chain monounsaturated fatty acids (VLCMFAs), VLCMFA elongase complex activity, and induction of the 3-ketoacyl-coenzyme A synthase (KCS) gene encoding the condensing enzyme of the VLCMFA elongation system. Of the concentrations tested, (+)-ABA at 10 μm showed the strongest effect. Maximum activity of the elongase complex, observed 6 h after 10 μm (+)-ABA treatment, was 60% higher than that of the untreated embryos at 24 h. The transcript of the KCS gene was induced by 10 μm (+)-ABA within 1 h and further increased up to 6 h. The VLCMFAs eicosenoic acid (20:1) and erucoic acid (22:1) increased by 1.5- to 2-fold in embryos treated with (+)-ABA for 72 h. Also, (+)-8′-methylene ABA, which is metabolized more slowly than ABA, had a stronger ABA-like effect on the KCS gene transcription, elongase complex activity (28% higher), and level of VLCMFAs (25–30% higher) than ABA. After 24 h approximately 60% of the added (+)-[3H]ABA (10 μm) was metabolized, yielding labeled phaseic and dihydrophaseic acid. This study demonstrates that (+)-ABA promotes VLCMFA biosynthesis via increased expression of the KCS gene and that reducing ABA catabolism would increase VLCMFAs in microspore-derived embryos.

Molecular and cellular aspects of the SREBP pathway

The SREBP (sterol response element binding proteins) transcription factors are central to regulating de novo biosynthesis of cholesterol and fatty acids. The SREBPs are regulated by retention or escape from the ER to the Golgi where they are proteolytically cleaved into active forms. The SREBP cleavage activating protein (SCAP) and the INSIG proteins are essential in this regulatory process. The aim of this thesis is to further characterise the molecular and cellular aspects surrounding regulation of SREBP processing. SREBP and SCAP are known to interact via their carboxy-terminal regulatory domains (CTDs) but this interaction is poorly characterised. Significant steps were achieved in this thesis towards specific mapping of the interaction site. These included cloning and over expression and partial purification of tagged SREBP1 and SREBP2 CTDs and probing of a SCAP peptide array with the CTDs. Results from the SREBP2 probing were difficult to interpret due to insolubility issues with the protein, however, probing with SREBP1 revealed five potential binding sites which were detected reproducibly. Further research is necessary to overcome SREBP2 insolubility issues and to confirm the identified SREBP1 interaction site(s) on SCAP. INSIG1 has a central role in regulating SREBP processing and in regulating stability of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase (HMGCR), a rate limiting enzyme in cholesterol biosynthesis. There are two protein isoforms of human INSIG1 produced through the use of two in-frame alternative start sites. Bioinformatic analysis indicated that the presence of two in-frame start sites within the 5-prime region of INSIG1 mRNA is highly conserved and that production of two isoforms of INSIG1is likely a conserved event. Functional differences between these two isoforms were explored. No difference in either the regulation of SREBP processing or HMGCR degradation between the INSIG1 isoforms was observed and the functional significance of the two isoforms is as yet unclear. The final part of this thesis focused on enhancing the cytotoxicity of statins by targeted inhibition of SREBP processing by oxysterols. Statins have significant potential as anti-cancer agents as they inhibit the activity of HMGCR leading to a deficiency in mevalonate which is essential for cell survival. The levels of HMGCR fluctuate widely due to cholesterol feedback of SREBP processing. The relationship between sterol feedback and statin mediated cell death was investigated in depth in HeLa cells. Down regulation of SREBP processing by sterols significantly enhanced the efficacy of statin mediated cell death. Investigation of sterol feedback in additional cancer cell lines showed that sterol feedback was absent in cell lines A- 498, DU-145, MCF-7 and MeWo but was present in cell lines HT-29, HepG2 and KYSE-70. In the latter inhibition of SREBP processing using oxysterols significantly enhanced statin cytotoxicity. The results indicate that this approach is valid to enhance statin cytotoxicity in cancer cells, but may be limited by deregulation of SREBP processing and off target effects of statins, which were observed for some of the cancer cell lines screened.

A mathematical model of the sterol regulatory element binding protein 2 cholesterol biosynthesis pathway

Cholesterol is one of the key constituents for maintaining the cellular membrane and thus the integrity of the cell itself. In contrast high levels of cholesterol in the blood are known to be a major risk factor in the development of cardiovascular disease. We formulate a deterministic nonlinear ordinary differential equation model of the sterol regulatory element binding protein 2 (SREBP-2) cholesterol genetic regulatory pathway in an hepatocyte. The mathematical model includes a description of genetic transcription by SREBP-2 which is subsequently translated to mRNA leading to the formation of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase (HMGCR), a main precursor of cholesterol synthesis. Cholesterol synthesis subsequently leads to the regulation of SREBP-2 via a negative feedback formulation. Parameterised with data from the literature, the model is used to understand how SREBP-2 transcription and regulation affects cellular cholesterol concentration. Model stability analysis shows that the only positive steady-state of the system exhibits purely oscillatory, damped oscillatory or monotic behaviour under certain parameter conditions. In light of our findings we postulate how cholesterol homestasis is maintained within the cell and the advantages of our model formulation are discussed with respect to other models of genetic regulation within the literature.

Association between diet and polymorphisms in individuals with statin-controlled dyslipidaemia grouped according to oxidative stress biomarkers

The objective of this study was to investigate whether differences in diet and in single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) found in paraoxonase-1 (PON-1), 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A reductase (HMGCR), cholesterol ester transfer protein (CETP) and apolipoprotein E (APOE) genes, are associated with oxidative stress biomarkers and consequently with susceptibility of low-density cholesterol (LDL) to oxidation. A multivariate approach was applied to a group of 55 patients according to three biomarkers: plasma antioxidant activity, malondialdehyde and oxidized LDL (oxLDL) concentrations. Individuals classified in Cluster III showed the worst prognoses in terms of antioxidant activity and oxidative status. Individuals classified in Cluster I presented the lowest oxidative status, while individuals grouped in Cluster II presented the highest levels of antioxidant activity. No difference in nutrient intake was observed among the clusters. Significantly higher gamma- and delta-tocopherol concentrations were observed in those individuals with the highest levels of antioxidant activity. No single linear regression was statistically significant, suggesting that mutant alleles of the SNPs selected did not contribute to the differences observed in oxidative stress response. Although not statistically significant, the p value of the APO E coefficient for oxLDL response was 0.096, indicating that patients who carry the TT allele of the APO E gene tend to present lower plasma oxLDL concentrations. Therefore, the differences in oxidative stress levels observed in this study could not be attributed to diet or to the variant alleles of PON-1, CETP, HMGCR or APO E. This data supports the influence of gamma-tocopherol and delta-tocopherol on antioxidant activity, and highlights the need for further studies investigating APO E alleles and LDL oxidation.

Response of the cholesterol metabolism to a negative energy balance in dairy cows depends on the lactational stage.

The response of cholesterol metabolism to a negative energy balance (NEB) induced by feed restriction for 3 weeks starting at 100 days in milk (DIM) compared to the physiologically occurring NEB in week 1 postpartum (p.p.) was investigated in 50 dairy cows (25 control (CON) and 25 feed-restricted (RES)). Blood samples, liver biopsies and milk samples were taken in week 1 p.p., and in weeks 0 and 3 of feed restriction. Plasma concentrations of total cholesterol (C), phospholipids (PL), triglycerides (TAG), very low density lipoprotein-cholesterol (VLDL-C) and low density lipoprotein-cholesterol (LDL-C) increased in RES cows from week 0 to 3 during feed restriction and were higher in week 3 compared to CON cows. In contrast, during the physiologically occurring NEB in week 1 p.p., C, PL, TAG and lipoprotein concentrations were at a minimum. Plasma phospholipid transfer protein (PLTP) and lecithin:cholesterol acyltransferase (LCAT) activities did not differ between week 0 and 3 for both groups, whereas during NEB in week 1 p.p. PLTP activity was increased and LCAT activity was decreased. Milk C concentration was not affected by feed restriction in both groups, whereas milk C mass was decreased in week 3 for RES cows. In comparison, C concentration and mass in milk were elevated in week 1 p.p. Hepatic mRNA abundance of sterol regulatory element-binding factor-2 (SREBF-2), 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A synthase 1 (HMGCS1), 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A reductase (HMGCR), and ATP-binding cassette transporter (ABCA1) were similar in CON and RES cows during feed restriction, but were upregulated during NEB in week 1 p.p. compared to the non-lactating stage without a NEB. In conclusion, cholesterol metabolism in dairy cows is affected by nutrient and energy deficiency depending on the stage of lactation.