The Use of Human and Conspecific Gestures By Capuchin Monkeys to Solve an Object-Choice Task

Most primates live in highly complex social systems, and therefore have evolved similarly complex methods of communicating with each other. One type of communication is the use of manual gestures, which are only found in primates. No substantial evidence exists indicating that monkeys use communicative gestures in the wild. However, monkeys may demonstrate the ability to learn and/or use gestures in certain experimental paradigms since they¿ve been shown to use other visual cues such as gaze. The purpose of this study was to investigate if ten brown capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella) were able to use gestural cues from monkeys and a pointing cue from a human to obtain a hidden reward. They were then tested to determine if they could transfer this skill from monkeys to humans and from humans to monkeys. One group of monkeys was trained and tested using a conspecific as the cue giver, and was then tested with a human cue-giver. The second group of monkeys began training and testing with a human cue giver, and was then tested with a monkey cue giver. I found that two monkeys were able to use gestural cues from conspecifics (e.g., reaching) to obtain a hidden reward and then transfer this ability to a pointing cue from a human. Four monkeys learned to use the human pointing cue first, and then transferred this ability to use the gestural cues from conspecifics to obtain a hidden reward. However, the number of trials it took for each monkey to transfer the ability varied considerably. Some subjects spontaneously transferred in the minimum number of trials needed to reach my criteria for successfully obtaining hidden rewards (N = 40 trials), while others needed a large number of trials to do so (e.g. N = 190 trials). Two subjects did not perform successfully in any of the conditions in which they were tested. One subject successfully used the human pointing cue and a human pointing plus vocalization cue, but did not learn the conspecific cue. One subject learned to use the conspecific cue but not the human pointing cue. This was the first study to test if brown capuchin monkeys could use gestural cues from conspecifics to solve an object choice task. The study was also the first to test if capuchins could transfer this skill from monkeys to humans and from humans to monkeys. Results showed that capuchin monkeys were able to flexibly use communicative gestures when they were both unintentionally given by a conspecific and intentionally given by a human to indicate a source of food.

Object-Oriented Legacy System Trace-based Logic Testing

When reengineering legacy systems, it is crucial to assess if the legacy behavior has been preserved or how it changed due to the reengineering effort. Ideally if a legacy system is covered by tests, running the tests on the new version can identify potential differences or discrepancies. However, writing tests for an unknown and large system is difficult due to the lack of internal knowledge. It is especially difficult to bring the system to an appropriate state. Our solution is based on the acknowledgment that one of the few trustable piece of information available when approaching a legacy system is the running system itself. Our approach reifies the execution traces and uses logic programming to express tests on them. Thereby it eliminates the need to programatically bring the system in a particular state, and handles the test-writer a high-level abstraction mechanism to query the trace. The resulting system, called TESTLOG, was used on several real-world case studies to validate our claims.

Adaptation to hard-object feeding in sea otters and hominins

The large, bunodont postcanine teeth in living sea otters (Enhydra lutris) have been likened to those of certain fossil hominins, particularly the ’robust’ australopiths (genus Paranthropus). We examine this evolutionary convergence by conducting fracture experiments on extracted molar teeth of sea otters and modern humans (Homo sapiens) to determine how load-bearing capacity relates to tooth morphology and enamel material properties. In situ optical microscopy and x-ray imaging during simulated occlusal loading reveal the nature of the fracture patterns. Explicit fracture relations are used to analyze the data and to extrapolate the results from humans to earlier hominins. It is shown that the molar teeth of sea otters have considerably thinner enamel than those of humans, making sea otter molars more susceptible to certain kinds of fractures. At the same time, the base diameter of sea otter first molars is larger, diminishing the fracture susceptibility in a compensatory manner. We also conduct nanoindentation tests to map out elastic modulus and hardness of sea otter and human molars through a section thickness, and microindentation tests to measure toughness. We find that while sea otter enamel is just as stiff elastically as human enamel, it is a little softer and tougher. The role of these material factors in the capacity of dentition to resist fracture and deformation is considered. From such comparisons, we argue that early hominin species like Paranthropus most likely consumed hard food objects with substantially higher biting forces than those exerted by modern humans.

Test Blueprints - Exposing Side Effects in Execution Traces to Support Writing Unit Tests

Writing unit tests for legacy systems is a key maintenance task. When writing tests for object-oriented programs, objects need to be set up and the expected effects of executing the unit under test need to be verified. If developers lack internal knowledge of a system, the task of writing tests is non-trivial. To address this problem, we propose an approach that exposes side effects detected in example runs of the system and uses these side effects to guide the developer when writing tests. We introduce a visualization called Test Blueprint, through which we identify what the required fixture is and what assertions are needed to verify the correct behavior of a unit under test. The dynamic analysis technique that underlies our approach is based on both tracing method executions and on tracking the flow of objects at runtime. To demonstrate the usefulness of our approach we present results from two case studies.

Complex visual hallucinations and attentional performance in eye disease and dementia: a test of the Perception and Attention Deficit model

OBJECTIVE This study aimed to test the prediction from the Perception and Attention Deficit model of complex visual hallucinations (CVH) that impairments in visual attention and perception are key risk factors for complex hallucinations in eye disease and dementia. METHODS Two studies ran concurrently to investigate the relationship between CVH and impairments in perception (picture naming using the Graded Naming Test) and attention (Stroop task plus a novel Imagery task). The studies were in two populations-older patients with dementia (n = 28) and older people with eye disease (n = 50) with a shared control group (n = 37). The same methodology was used in both studies, and the North East Visual Hallucinations Inventory was used to identify CVH. RESULTS A reliable relationship was found for older patients with dementia between impaired perceptual and attentional performance and CVH. A reliable relationship was not found in the population of people with eye disease. CONCLUSIONS The results add to previous research that object perception and attentional deficits are associated with CVH in dementia, but that risk factors for CVH in eye disease are inconsistent, suggesting that dynamic rather than static impairments in attentional processes may be key in this population.

The Software Prototype as Digital Boundary Object – A Revelatory Longitudinal Innovation Case

With the availability of lower cost but highly skilled software development labor from offshore regions, entrepreneurs from developed countries who do not have software development experience can utilize this workforce to develop innovative software products. In order to succeed in offshored innovation projects, the often extreme knowledge boundaries between the onsite entrepreneur and the offshore software development team have to be overcome. Prior research has proposed that boundary objects are critical for bridging such boundaries – if they are appropriately used. Our longitudinal, revelatory case study of a software innovation project is one of the first to explore the role of the software prototype as a digital boundary object. Our study empirically unpacks five use practices that transform the software prototype into a boundary object such that knowledge boundaries are bridged. Our findings provide new theoretical insights for literature on software innovation and boundary objects, and have implications for practice.

Detecting single-target changes in multiple object tracking: The case of peripheral vision.

In sports games, it is often necessary to perceive a large number of moving objects (e.g., the ball and players). In this context, the role of peripheral vision for processing motion information in the periphery is often discussed especially when motor responses are required. In an attempt to test the basal functionality of peripheral vision in those sports-games situations, a Multiple Object Tracking (MOT) task that requires to track a certain number of targets amidst distractors, was chosen. Participants’ primary task was to recall four targets (out of 10 rectangular stimuli) after six seconds of quasi-random motion. As a second task, a button had to be pressed if a target change occurred (Exp 1: stop vs. form change to a diamond for 0.5 s; Exp 2: stop vs. slowdown for 0.5 s). While eccentricities of changes (5-10° vs. 15-20°) were manipulated, decision accuracy (recall and button press correct), motor response time as well as saccadic reaction time were calculated as dependent variables. Results show that participants indeed used peripheral vision to detect changes, because either no or very late saccades to the changed target were executed in correct trials. Moreover, a saccade was more often executed when eccentricities were small. Response accuracies were higher and response times were lower in the stop conditions of both experiments while larger eccentricities led to higher response times in all conditions. Summing up, it could be shown that monitoring targets and detecting changes can be processed by peripheral vision only and that a monitoring strategy on the basis of peripheral vision may be the optimal one as saccades may be afflicted with certain costs. Further research is planned to address the question whether this functionality is also evident in sports tasks.

Detecting single-target changes in multiple object tracking: The case of peripheral vision

In sports games, it is often necessary to perceive a large number of moving objects (e.g., the ball and players). In this context, the role of peripheral vision for processing motion information in the periphery is often discussed especially when motor responses are required. In an attempt to test the capability of using peripheral vision in those sports-games situations, a Multiple-Object-Tracking task that requires to track a certain number of targets amidst distractors, was chosen to determine the sensitivity of detecting target changes with peripheral vision only. Participants’ primary task was to recall four targets (out of 10 rectangular stimuli) after six seconds of quasi-random motion. As a second task, a button had to be pressed if a target change occurred (Exp 1: stop vs. form change to a diamond for 0.5 s; Exp 2: stop vs. slowdown for 0.5 s). Eccentricities of changes (5-10° vs. 15-20°) were manipulated, decision accuracy (recall and button press correct), motor response time and saccadic reaction time (change onset to saccade onset) were calculated and eye-movements were recorded. Results show that participants indeed used peripheral vision to detect changes, because either no or very late saccades to the changed target were executed in correct trials. Moreover, a saccade was more often executed when eccentricities were small. Response accuracies were higher and response times were lower in the stop conditions of both experiments while larger eccentricities led to higher response times in all conditions. Summing up, it could be shown that monitoring targets and detecting changes can be processed by peripheral vision only and that a monitoring strategy on the basis of peripheral vision may be the optimal one as saccades may be afflicted with certain costs. Further research is planned to address the question whether this functionality is also evident in sports tasks.

Object-Based Customization of Learning Content: Potentials and Pitfalls

Specification consortia and standardization bodies concentrate on e-Learning objects to en-sure reusability of content. Learning objects may be collected in a library and used for deriv-ing course offerings that are customized to the needs of different learning communities. How-ever, customization of courses is possible only if the logical dependencies between the learn-ing objects are known. Metadata for describing object relationships have been proposed in several e-Learning specifications. This paper discusses the customization potential of e-Learning objects but also the pitfalls that exist if content is customized inappropriately.

Detecting single-target changes in multiple object tracking: The case of peripheral vision

In the current study it is investigated whether peripheral vision can be used to monitor multi-ple moving objects and to detect single-target changes. For this purpose, in Experiment 1, a modified MOT setup with a large projection and a constant-position centroid phase had to be checked first. Classical findings regarding the use of a virtual centroid to track multiple ob-jects and the dependency of tracking accuracy on target speed could be successfully replicat-ed. Thereafter, the main experimental variations regarding the manipulation of to-be-detected target changes could be introduced in Experiment 2. In addition to a button press used for the detection task, gaze behavior was assessed using an integrated eye-tracking system. The anal-ysis of saccadic reaction times in relation to the motor response shows that peripheral vision is naturally used to detect motion and form changes in MOT because the saccade to the target occurred after target-change offset. Furthermore, for changes of comparable task difficulties, motion changes are detected better by peripheral vision than form changes. Findings indicate that capabilities of the visual system (e.g., visual acuity) affect change detection rates and that covert-attention processes may be affected by vision-related aspects like spatial uncertainty. Moreover, it is argued that a centroid-MOT strategy might reduce the amount of saccade-related costs and that eye-tracking seems to be generally valuable to test predictions derived from theories on MOT. Finally, implications for testing covert attention in applied settings are proposed.

Stable carbon and oxygen isotope ratios for different test sizes of live benthic foraminifera from the Arabian Sea

We determined the stable oxygen and carbon isotopic composition of live (Rose Bengal stained) tests belonging to different size classes of two benthic foraminiferal species from the Pakistan continental margin. Samples were taken at 2 sites, with water depth of about 135 and 275 m, corresponding to the upper boundary and upper part of the core region of the oxygen minimum zone (OMZ). For Uvigerina ex gr. U. semiornata and Bolivina aff. B. dilatata, delta13C and delta18O values increased significantly with increasing test size. In the case of U. ex gr. U. semiornata, delta13C increased linearly by about 0.105 per mil for each 100-µm increment in test size, whereas delta18O increased by 0.02 to 0.06 per mil per 100 µm increment. For B. aff. B. dilatata the relationship between test size and stable isotopic composition is better described by logarithmic equations. A strong positive linear correlation is observed between delta18O and delta13C values of both taxa, with a constant ratio of delta18O and delta13C values close to 2:1. This suggests that the strong ontogenetic effect is mainly caused by kinetic isotope fractionation during CO2 uptake. Our data underline the necessity to base longer delta18O and delta13C isotope records derived from benthic foraminifera on size windows of 100 µm or less. This is already common practice in down-core isotopic studies of planktonic foraminifera.

The Study of International Cultural Relations of Postwar Japan

The paper examines policies and activities of cultural exchange carried out by Japanese national, local and private agents since the end of WWII. Methodologically, we distinctively use the notion culture as a tool and as an object of study, and to synthesize the two in full intention, based on the debate among IR students about so called Cultural Turn in IR theories. As case studies, the Japanese experiences are examined from two points. Firstly, it is compared with the German experiences in Europe, with special attention to the construction of national identity.In both countries, the peoples tried to make use of cultural exchange activities in the management of international relations. The actual developments of cultural relations by the two countries, however, were in striking contrast to each other. Secondly, our study focuses on the explosive expansion of private sector's international cultural exchange in the 1980s in association with so called "emerging civil society" phenomenon observed worldwide throughout 1970s and 1980s. By using our original approach mentioned in the Chapter 1, the paper tries to sketch out that the increase of the private organizations is largely the response of the Japanese society to outside influences, not something genuinely outgrown from within the society itself due to mainly domestic causes.

Structuring research methods and data with the research object model: genomics workflows as a case study

Background: One of the main challenges for biomedical research lies in the computer-assisted integrative study of large and increasingly complex combinations of data in order to understand molecular mechanisms. The preservation of the materials and methods of such computational experiments with clear annotations is essential for understanding an experiment, and this is increasingly recognized in the bioinformatics community. Our assumption is that offering means of digital, structured aggregation and annotation of the objects of an experiment will provide necessary meta-data for a scientist to understand and recreate the results of an experiment. To support this we explored a model for the semantic description of a workflow-centric Research Object (RO), where an RO is defined as a resource that aggregates other resources, e.g., datasets, software, spreadsheets, text, etc. We applied this model to a case study where we analysed human metabolite variation by workflows. Results: We present the application of the workflow-centric RO model for our bioinformatics case study. Three workflows were produced following recently defined Best Practices for workflow design. By modelling the experiment as an RO, we were able to automatically query the experiment and answer questions such as “which particular data was input to a particular workflow to test a particular hypothesis?”, and “which particular conclusions were drawn from a particular workflow?”. Conclusions: Applying a workflow-centric RO model to aggregate and annotate the resources used in a bioinformatics experiment, allowed us to retrieve the conclusions of the experiment in the context of the driving hypothesis, the executed workflows and their input data. The RO model is an extendable reference model that can be used by other systems as well.

El perfil de los consumidores de productos de comercio justo. Análisis de las variables que influyen en su intención de compra

El consumo mundial, impulsor del desarrollo y crecimiento económico de los pueblos, no ha sido igual para todas las naciones, ya que sus efectos han sido diferentes para los ciudadanos de los países del Norte y los del Sur, principalmente por dos razones: una, porque han originado complejos y diferentes estilos de vida y aspiraciones, lo que ha originado grandes diferencias entre los individuos de unos y otros países, y, dos, por su falta de valores sociales y éticos. Ante esta situación, la sociedad en su conjunto debe tomar conciencia de este hecho, y a través de un consumo responsable y de un mayor conocimiento de las relaciones comerciales entre los pueblos, debe optar por consumir productos elaborados bajo criterios de justicia y equidad. Para ayudar a alcanzar estos objetivos de equidad, solidaridad, justicia y ética, nació el Comercio Justo, que, en el caso de España, llegó con veinte años de retraso en la década de los ochenta. Aunque a día de hoy sus ventas crecen a un buen ritmo, siguen siendo inferiores al resto de los países europeos, por cuatro razones: (1) el desconocimiento que la mayoría de los potenciales consumidores tienen de este movimiento social; (2) la dificultad de acceder a los productos que comercializan; (3) el poco impulso que se ofrece desde las Administraciones Públicas; y, (4) porque hay pocas investigaciones en las que se haya analizado el Comercio Justo desde la perspectiva de la demanda, lo que ha implicado que no haya un conocimiento profundo sobre los consumidores de este tipo de productos y sobre sus motivaciones de compra. En base a todo lo expuesto, el presente trabajo se concibe como un estudio exploratorio, que tiene como objetivo principal analizar el perfil de los consumidores y no consumidores de productos de Comercio Justo, sus motivaciones de compra y no compra, así como las variables que influyen en la intención de compra futura, tanto en el segmento de consumidores actuales, como en el segmento de no consumidores de este tipo de productos. Para la realización de este trabajo, se ha utilizado, por una parte, una metodología cualitativa, que ha permitido acceder a la información sobre las opiniones y actitudes que intervienen en los procesos de decisión de compra; y, por otra, una metodología cuantitativa, a través de una encuesta online dirigida a 6.500 individuos, que ha permitido tener información, a través de sendos análisis descriptivos univariante y bivariante, de los individuos encuestados sobre el objeto del estudio. Para validar los modelos y contrastar las hipótesis planteadas, se ha utilizado el análisis de fiabilidad y validación de las escalas de medición seleccionadas (Alpha de Cronbach); el análisis factorial exploratorio, para comprobar la dimensionalidad y validez convergente de las escalas de medida; el análisis factorial confirmatorio, para validar la idoneidad de los modelos de medida propuestos; la regresión logística, para comprobar la validez del modelo general de la probabilidad de la compra o no compra de productos de Comercio Justo; y la regresión lineal múltiple, para comprobar la validez de los modelos específicos de intención de compra futura en los segmentos de compradores y de no compradores. Para realizar todos estos análisis, se han utilizado las herramientas informáticas SPSS v21 y AMOS. Las principales conclusiones del trabajo son: (1) que se deben establecer unos criterios claros que definan quién es quién en el movimiento de Comercio Justo, sus fines, sus objetivos, los productos que comercializan, así como su funcionamiento y desarrollo en España; (2) que, a pesar de las grandes ventajas y posibilidades del Comercio Justo, hay una falta de demanda de estos productos por parte de los consumidores responsables, debido principalmente a la falta de información-comunicación sobre el propio movimiento, y, muy especialmente, a la falta de información sobre los productos, los canales de comercialización, las políticas de precios, las políticas de comunicación, etc., y a la necesidad de que estos productos estén accesibles en los lugares donde los consumidores hacen su compra habitual; y (3) que el Comercio Justo español debe afrontar una serie de desafíos, como son la coordinación entre las diferentes organizaciones que participan en su desarrollo; la sensibilización de los consumidores; la creación de una imagen de marca que defina de una manera clara y sencilla qué es el Comercio Justo; la orientación al cliente y no al producto; y extender la red de comercialización de productos de Comercio Justo a los canales donde los consumidores hacen su compra habitualmente. ABSTRACT Global consumption, the driver of economic growth and development of nations, is not the same for all countries, since its effects have been different on people coming from the North or the South. This is due mainly to two reasons: firstly, because they have developed complex and different lifestyles and aspirations, which have led to significant differences between individuals of one country and another and secondly, because they lack social and ethical values. Given this situation, society as a whole should be aware of this fact, and through responsible consumption and a greater knowledge of trade relations between countries, should opt for consuming products produced with criteria of justice and equity. Fair Trade began as a way to help reach these goals of equity, solidarity, justice and ethics. In the case of Spain it did not start until 20 years later, in the eighties. Although today sales of Fair Trade products are growing at a good rate, they are still below that of other European countries, for four reasons: (1) unawareness of this social movement; (2) the difficult access to these products; (3) insufficient government support; (4) the limited research carried out to analyse Fair Trade from the perspective of demand, resulting in a lack of knowledge about this type of consumer and their purchasing motivations. Based on the above, the present study is designed as an exploratory investigation, aimed at analyzing the profile of consumers and non-consumers of Fair Trade, their motivations for buying and not buying, as well as the variables which influence future purchase intention in both the current consumer segment, and the non-user segment of such products. To carry out this study we have used, on the one hand, a qualitative methodology, to obtain information about the views and attitudes involved in the purchase decision process; and on the other, a quantitative methodology, through an online survey of 6,500 individuals, which provided information through two separate univariate and bivariate descriptive analysis, of the individuals interviewed about the object of this study. To validate the models and contrast hypotheses, we have used the reliability analysis and validation of the selected measurement scales (Cronbach's Alpha); exploratory factor analysis to verify the dimensionality and convergent validity of the measurement scales; confirmatory factor analysis to validate the adequacy of the models of measurement proposed; logistic regression, to verify the validity of the general model of the probability of buying or not buying Fair Trade products; and multiple linear regression to test the validity of specific models in future purchase intention in the segments of buyers and non-buyers. To carry out these analyses, we used SPSS v21 software tools and AMOS. The principal conclusions of the investigation are: (1) the need to establish clear criteria which define who is who in the Fair Trade movement, its goals, objectives, the products they sell, as well as its operation and development in Spain; (2) that despite the great advantages and possibilities of Fair Trade, there is a lack of demand for these products by responsible consumers, mainly due to the lack of information-communication about the movement itself, and especially on the range of products, sales channels, pricing policies, communication policies, etc., and the need for these products to be available in places where consumers make their usual purchase; and (3) that Spanish Fair Trade must address a number of challenges such as: coordination between the different organizations involved in trade development; consumer awareness; creation of a brand image that defines in a clear and simple way what Fair Trade is; focus on the customer rather than the product; and expansion of the network of Fair Trade sales outlets to include the channels where consumers usually make their purchases.