Activated Carbons Produced from Mixtures of Synthetic Polymers by Physical and Chemical Activation: Application on MCPA Removal

The production of AC was achieved using the most common industrial and consumer solid waste, namely PET, alone or blended with other synthetic polymer such PAN. The PET-PAN mixture (1:1 W/W %) was subjected to carbonization, with a pyrolysis yield off 31.9%, between that obtained with PET (16.9%) or PAN (42.6%) separately. By mixing PET, as a raw material, with PAN (different ratio), an improvement in the final yield of the AC production, for the same activation time, with CO2, was found.

Physical-chemical and microbiological changes in Cerrado Soil under differing sugarcane harvest management systems

Background: Sugarcane cultivation plays an important role in Brazilian economy, and it is expanding fast, mainly due to the increasing demand for ethanol production. In order to understand the impact of sugarcane cultivation and management, we studied sugarcane under different management regimes (pre-harvest burn and mechanical, unburnt harvest, or green cane), next to a control treatment with native vegetation. The soil bacterial community structure (including an evaluation of the diversity of the ammonia oxidizing (amoA) and denitrifying (nirK) genes), greenhouse gas flow and several soil physicochemical properties were evaluated. Results: Our results indicate that sugarcane cultivation in this region resulted in changes in several soil properties. Moreover, such changes are reflected in the soil microbiota. No significant influence of soil management on greenhouse gas fluxes was found. However, we did find a relationship between the biological changes and the dynamics of soil nutrients. In particular, the burnt cane and green cane treatments had distinct modifications. There were significant differences in the structure of the total bacterial, the ammonia oxidizing and the denitrifying bacterial communities, being that these groups responded differently to the changes in the soil. A combination of physical and chemical factors was correlated to the changes in the structures of the total bacterial communities of the soil. The changes in the structures of the functional groups follow a different pattern than the physicochemical variables. The latter might indicate a strong influence of interactions among different bacterial groups in the N cycle, emphasizing the importance of biological factors in the structuring of these communities. Conclusion: Sugarcane land use significantly impacted the structure of total selected soil bacterial communities and ammonia oxidizing and denitrifier gene diversities in a Cerrado field site in Central Brazil. A high impact of land use was observed in soil under the common burnt cane management. The green cane soil also presented different profiles compared to the control soil, but to at a lesser degree.

What can physical, biotic and chemical features of a tree hollow tell us about their associated diversity?

Tree hollows are keystone structures for saproxylic fauna and host numerous endangered species. However, not all tree hollows are equal. Many variables including physical, biotic and chemical ones, can characterise a tree hollow, however, the information that these could provide about the saproxylic diversity they harbour has been poorly explored. We studied the beetle assemblages of 111 Quercus species tree hollows in four protected areas of the Iberian Peninsula. Three physical variables related to tree hollow structure, and two biotic ones (presence of Cetoniidae and Cerambyx species recognised as ecosystem engineers) were measured in each hollow to explore their relative effect on beetle assemblages. Moreover, we analysed the chemical composition of the wood mould in 34 of the hollows, in order to relate beetle diversity with hollow quality. All the environmental variables analysed (physical and biological) showed a significant influence on saproxylic beetle assemblages that varied depending on the species. Furthermore, the presence of ecosystem engineers affected both physical and chemical features. Although wood mould volume, and both biotic variables could act as beetle diversity surrogate, we enhance the presence of Cetoniidae and Cerambyx activity (both easily observable in the field) as indicator variables, even more if both co-occur as each affect to different assemblages. Finally, assimilable carbon and phosphorous contents could act as indicator for past and present beetle activity inside the cavity that could become a useful tool in functional diversity studies. However, an extension of this work to other taxonomic groups would be desirable.

Modulation of depth-dependent properties in tissue-engineered cartilage with a semi-permeable membrane and perfusion : a continuum model of matrix metabolism and transport

The functional properties of cartilaginous tissues are determined predominantly by the content, distribution, and organization of proteoglycan and collagen in the extracellular matrix. Extracellular matrix accumulates in tissue-engineered cartilage constructs by metabolism and transport of matrix molecules, processes that are modulated by physical and chemical factors. Constructs incubated under free-swelling conditions with freely permeable or highly permeable membranes exhibit symmetric surface regions of soft tissue. The variation in tissue properties with depth from the surfaces suggests the hypothesis that the transport processes mediated by the boundary conditions govern the distribution of proteoglycan in such constructs. A continuum model (DiMicco and Sah in Transport Porus Med 50:57-73, 2003) was extended to test the effects of membrane permeability and perfusion on proteoglycan accumulation in tissue-engineered cartilage. The concentrations of soluble, bound, and degraded proteoglycan were analyzed as functions of time, space, and non-dimensional parameters for several experimental configurations. The results of the model suggest that the boundary condition at the membrane surface and the rate of perfusion, described by non-dimensional parameters, are important determinants of the pattern of proteoglycan accumulation. With perfusion, the proteoglycan profile is skewed, and decreases or increases in magnitude depending on the level of flow-based stimulation. Utilization of a semi-permeable membrane with or without unidirectional flow may lead to tissues with depth-increasing proteoglycan content, resembling native articular cartilage.

Contributions of phosphatase and microbial activity to internal phosphorus loading and their relation to lake eutrophication

Phosphatase may accelerate the process of lake eutrophication through improving phosphorus bioavailability. This mechanism was studied in three Chinese eutrophic shallow lakes (Lake Taihu, Lake Longyang,and Lake Lianhua). Phosphatase activity was related to the concentration of soluble reactive phosphorus (SRP) and chlorophyll a. Stability of dissolved phosphatase in reverse micelles may be attributed to molecular size, conformation and active residues of the enzyme. At the site with Microcystis bloomed in Lake Taihu, dissolved phosphatase activity was higher and more stable in micelles, SRP concentrations were lower in interstitial water, the contents of different forms of phosphorus and the amounts of aerobic bacteria were lower while respiration efficiency was higher in sediments. Phosphobacteria, both inorganic and organic and other microorganisms were abundant in surface water but rare in sediments. Therefore, internal phosphorus may substantially flux into water column by enzymatic hydrolysis and anaerobic release, together with mobility of bacteria, thereby initiating the bloom. In short, biological mechanism may act in concert with physical and chemical factors to drive the internal phosphorus release and accelerate lake eutrophication.

Dynamics of dimethylsulfide and dimethylsulfoniopropionate produced by phytoplankton in the Chinese seas - Distribution patterns and affecting factors

Distribution of dimethylsulfide (DMS) and/or particulate dimethylsulfoniopropionate (DMSPp) concentrations in the Jiaozhou Bay, Zhifu Bay and East China Sea were investigated during the period of 1994 - 1998. Both DMS and DMSPp levels showed remarkable temporal and spatial variations. High values occurred in the coastal or shelf waters and low values in the offshore waters. The highest levels were observed in spring or summer and lowest in autumn. DMS or DMSPp distribution patterns were associated with water mass on a large geographical scale, while biological and chemical factors were more likely influential on smaller-scale variations. Diatoms could play an important role in total DMS or DMSPp abundance in coastal waters. Nitrate was found to have a two-phase relationship with DMSPp concentrations: positive when nitrate concentration was lower than 1 mumol/L, and negative when it was above. Anthropogenic factors such as sewage input and aquaculture also showed influences on DMS or DMSPp concentration.

Effects of soil management systems on soil microbial activity, bulk density and chemical properties

Este trabalho teve por objetivo estudar os efeitos de diferentes sistemas de uso e manejo na densidade do solo nas suas propriedades químicas e na atividade microbiana em um Latossolo Vermelho distrófico (Oxisol). As amostras de solo foram retiradas de parcelas dos seguintes tratamentos: cerrado denso preservado, pastagem de Brachiaria decumbens degradada (20 anos), plantio direto com rotação de culturas (8 anos) e sistema convencional com rotação de culturas anuais (10 anos). O delineamento experimental utilizado foi o inteiramente casualizado, com dez repetições. O uso contínuo de plantio direto resultou em mais alta taxa de C-biomassa microbiana e menor perda relativa de carbono pela respiração basal, podendo determinar, desta forma, maior acúmulo de C no solo a longo prazo. Proporcionou, ainda, melhoria na densidade aparente e nas propriedades químicas do solo. Assim, o sistema plantio direto, com manejo de culturas, mostrou ser uma alternativa para a conservação e manutenção das condições físicas e do potencial produtivo de solos de cerrado.

Rotifer abundance, biomass, and secondary production after the recovery of hydrologic connectivity between a river and two marginal lakes (São Paulo, Brazil)

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Off-line TMAH-GC/MS and NMR characterization of humic substances extracted from river sediments of northwestern Sao Paulo under different soil uses

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Kinetic modeling and experiments on gas uptake and chemical transformation of organic aerosol in the atmosphere

Aerosolpartikel beeinflussen das Klima durch Streuung und Absorption von Strahlung sowie als Nukleations-Kerne für Wolkentröpfchen und Eiskristalle. Darüber hinaus haben Aerosole einen starken Einfluss auf die Luftverschmutzung und die öffentliche Gesundheit. Gas-Partikel-Wechselwirkunge sind wichtige Prozesse, weil sie die physikalischen und chemischen Eigenschaften von Aerosolen wie Toxizität, Reaktivität, Hygroskopizität und optische Eigenschaften beeinflussen. Durch einen Mangel an experimentellen Daten und universellen Modellformalismen sind jedoch die Mechanismen und die Kinetik der Gasaufnahme und der chemischen Transformation organischer Aerosolpartikel unzureichend erfasst. Sowohl die chemische Transformation als auch die negativen gesundheitlichen Auswirkungen von toxischen und allergenen Aerosolpartikeln, wie Ruß, polyzyklische aromatische Kohlenwasserstoffe (PAK) und Proteine, sind bislang nicht gut verstanden.rn Kinetische Fluss-Modelle für Aerosoloberflächen- und Partikelbulk-Chemie wurden auf Basis des Pöschl-Rudich-Ammann-Formalismus für Gas-Partikel-Wechselwirkungen entwickelt. Zunächst wurde das kinetische Doppelschicht-Oberflächenmodell K2-SURF entwickelt, welches den Abbau von PAK auf Aerosolpartikeln in Gegenwart von Ozon, Stickstoffdioxid, Wasserdampf, Hydroxyl- und Nitrat-Radikalen beschreibt. Kompetitive Adsorption und chemische Transformation der Oberfläche führen zu einer stark nicht-linearen Abhängigkeit der Ozon-Aufnahme bezüglich Gaszusammensetzung. Unter atmosphärischen Bedingungen reicht die chemische Lebensdauer von PAK von wenigen Minuten auf Ruß, über mehrere Stunden auf organischen und anorganischen Feststoffen bis hin zu Tagen auf flüssigen Partikeln. rn Anschließend wurde das kinetische Mehrschichtenmodell KM-SUB entwickelt um die chemische Transformation organischer Aerosolpartikel zu beschreiben. KM-SUB ist in der Lage, Transportprozesse und chemische Reaktionen an der Oberfläche und im Bulk von Aerosol-partikeln explizit aufzulösen. Es erforder im Gegensatz zu früheren Modellen keine vereinfachenden Annahmen über stationäre Zustände und radiale Durchmischung. In Kombination mit Literaturdaten und neuen experimentellen Ergebnissen wurde KM-SUB eingesetzt, um die Effekte von Grenzflächen- und Bulk-Transportprozessen auf die Ozonolyse und Nitrierung von Protein-Makromolekülen, Ölsäure, und verwandten organischen Ver¬bin-dungen aufzuklären. Die in dieser Studie entwickelten kinetischen Modelle sollen als Basis für die Entwicklung eines detaillierten Mechanismus für Aerosolchemie dienen sowie für das Herleiten von vereinfachten, jedoch realistischen Parametrisierungen für großskalige globale Atmosphären- und Klima-Modelle. rn Die in dieser Studie durchgeführten Experimente und Modellrechnungen liefern Beweise für die Bildung langlebiger reaktiver Sauerstoff-Intermediate (ROI) in der heterogenen Reaktion von Ozon mit Aerosolpartikeln. Die chemische Lebensdauer dieser Zwischenformen beträgt mehr als 100 s, deutlich länger als die Oberflächen-Verweilzeit von molekularem O3 (~10-9 s). Die ROIs erklären scheinbare Diskrepanzen zwischen früheren quantenmechanischen Berechnungen und kinetischen Experimenten. Sie spielen eine Schlüsselrolle in der chemischen Transformation sowie in den negativen Gesundheitseffekten von toxischen und allergenen Feinstaubkomponenten, wie Ruß, PAK und Proteine. ROIs sind vermutlich auch an der Zersetzung von Ozon auf mineralischem Staub und an der Bildung sowie am Wachstum von sekundären organischen Aerosolen beteiligt. Darüber hinaus bilden ROIs eine Verbindung zwischen atmosphärischen und biosphärischen Mehrphasenprozessen (chemische und biologische Alterung).rn Organische Verbindungen können als amorpher Feststoff oder in einem halbfesten Zustand vorliegen, der die Geschwindigkeit von heterogenen Reaktionenen und Mehrphasenprozessen in Aerosolen beeinflusst. Strömungsrohr-Experimente zeigen, dass die Ozonaufnahme und die oxidative Alterung von amorphen Proteinen durch Bulk-Diffusion kinetisch limitiert sind. Die reaktive Gasaufnahme zeigt eine deutliche Zunahme mit zunehmender Luftfeuchte, was durch eine Verringerung der Viskosität zu erklären ist, bedingt durch einen Phasenübergang der amorphen organischen Matrix von einem glasartigen zu einem halbfesten Zustand (feuchtigkeitsinduzierter Phasenübergang). Die chemische Lebensdauer reaktiver Verbindungen in organischen Partikeln kann von Sekunden bis zu Tagen ansteigen, da die Diffusionsrate in der halbfesten Phase bei niedriger Temperatur oder geringer Luftfeuchte um Größenordnungen absinken kann. Die Ergebnisse dieser Studie zeigen wie halbfeste Phasen die Auswirkung organischeer Aerosole auf Luftqualität, Gesundheit und Klima beeinflussen können. rn

Analysis of physical and physiological requirements in soccer trainings in young soccer players (under -10 years)

The aim of this study is to analyse the physical and physiological factors in soccer training at different categories of training. The participants were 30 soccer players of 8-aside soccer in the under 10’s age group (9.93±0.25 years) who participated in the under 10 Provincial Tournament in Alicante. During training, the variables of covered distance, heart rate, speed (average and maximum values) as well as the methodology used and position were registered. After the statistical analysis and its related discussion, it was concluded that the players do not show differences in the covered total distance in relation to the category. Notwithstanding, there are differences with regards to speed and heart rate, which are caused by the greater physical development of the players in comparison to the under10’s age group category. Regarding the methodology employed, it is worth stressing that the coaches used, to a greater extend, the global method, followed by the mixed method.

Site specific growth of metal catalyzed silica nanowires for biological and chemical sensing

In this research the integration of nanostructures and micro-scale devices was investigated using silica nanowires to develop a simple yet robust nanomanufacturing technique for improving the detection parameters of chemical and biological sensors. This has been achieved with the use of a dielectric barrier layer, to restrict nanowire growth to site-specific locations which has removed the need for post growth processing, by making it possible to place nanostructures on pre-pattern substrates. Nanowires were synthesized using the Vapor-Liquid-Solid growth method. Process parameters (temperature and time) and manufacturing aspects (structural integrity and biocompatibility) were investigated. Silica nanowires were observed experimentally to determine how their physical and chemical properties could be tuned for integration into existing sensing structures. Growth kinetic experiments performed using gold and palladium catalysts at 1050°C for 60 minutes in an open-tube furnace yielded dense and consistent silica nanowire growth. This consistent growth led to the development of growth model fitting, through use of the Maximum Likelihood Estimation (MLE) and Bayesian hierarchical modeling. Transmission electron microscopy studies revealed the nanowires to be amorphous and X-ray diffraction confirmed the composition to be SiO2 . Silica nanowires were monitored in epithelial breast cancer media using Impedance spectroscopy, to test biocompatibility, due to potential in vivo use as a diagnostic aid. It was found that palladium catalyzed silica nanowires were toxic to breast cancer cells, however, nanowires were inert at 1μg/mL concentrations. Additionally a method for direct nanowire integration was developed that allowed for silica nanowires to be grown directly into interdigitated sensing structures. This technique eliminates the need for physical nanowire transfer thus preserving nanowire structure and performance integrity and further reduces fabrication cost. Successful nanowire integration was physically verified using Scanning electron microscopy and confirmed electrically using Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy of immobilized Prostate Specific Antigens (PSA). The experiments performed above serve as a guideline to addressing the metallurgic challenges in nanoscale integration of materials with varying composition and to understanding the effects of nanomaterials on biological structures that come in contact with the human body.

Synthesis, characterization and chemical vapor deposition of transition metal di(tert-butyl)amido compounds

Although the transition metal chemistry of many dialkylamido ligands has been well studied, the chemistry of the bulky di(tert-butyl)amido ligand has been largely overlooked. The di(tert-butyl)amido ligand is well suited for synthesizing transition metal compounds with low coordination numbers; such compounds may exhibit interesting structural, physical, and chemical properties. Di(tert-butyl)amido complexes of transition metals are expected to exhibit high volatilities and low decomposition temperatures, thus making them well suited for the chemical vapor deposition of metals and metal nitrides. Treatment of MnBr₂(THF)₂, FeI₂, CoBr₂(DME), or NiBr₂(DME) with two equivalents of LiN(t-Bu)2 in benzene affords the two-coordinate complex M[N(t-Bu)₂]₂, where M is Mn, Fe, Co, or Ni. Crystallographic studies show that the M-N distances decrease across the series: 1.9365 (Mn), 1.8790 (Fe), 1.845 (Co), 1.798 Å (Ni). The N-M- N angles are very close to linear for Mn and Fe (179.30 and 179.45°, respectively), but bent for Co and Ni (159.2 and 160.90°, respectively). As expected, the d⁵ Mn complex has a magnetic moment of 5.53 μΒ that is very close to the spin only value. The EPR spectrum is nearly axial with a low E/D ratio of 0.014. The d⁶ Fe compound has a room temperature magnetic moment of 5.55 μΒ indicative of a large orbital angular momentum contribution. It does not exhibit a Jahn-Teller distortion despite the expected doubly degenerate ground state. Applied field Mössbauer spectroscopy shows that the effective internal hyperfine field is unusually large, Hint = 105 T. The magnetic moments of Co[N(t-Bu)₂]₂ and Ni[N(t-Bu)₂]₂ are 5.24 and 3.02 μΒ respectively. Both are EPR silent at 4.2 K. Treatment of TiCl₄ with three equivalents of LiN(t-Bu)2 in pentane affords the briding imido compound Ti₂[μ-N(t-Bu)]₂Cl₂[N(t-Bu)₂]₂ via a dealkylation reaction. Rotation around the bis(tert-butyl)amido groups is hindered, with activation parameters of ΔH‡ = 12.8 ± 0.6 kcal mol-1 and ΔS‡ = -8 ± 2 cal K-1 ·mol-1, as evidenced by variable temperature 1H NMR spectroscopy. Treatment of TiCl₄ with two equivalents of HN(t-Bu)₂ affords Ti₂Cl₆[N(t-Bu)₂]₂. This complex shows a close-contact of 2.634(3) Å between Ti and the carbon atom of one of the CH₃ substituents on the tert-butyl groups. Theoretical considerations and detailed structural comparisons suggest this interaction is not agostic in nature, but rather is a consequence of interligand repulsions. Treatment of NiI₂(PPh3)₂ and PdCl₂(PPh₃)₂ with LiN(t-Bu)₂in benzene affords Ni[N(t-Bu)₂](PPh₃)I and Pd₃(μ₂-NBut₂)2(μ₂-PPh₂)Ph(PPh₃) respectively. The compound Ni[N(t-Bu)₂](PPh₃)I has distorted T-shape in geometry, whereas Pd₃(μ₂-NBut₂)₂(μ₂-PPh₂)Ph(PPh₃) contains a triangular palladium core. Manganese nitride films were grown from Mn[N(t-Bu)₂]₂ in the presence of anhydrous ammonia. The growth rate was several nanometers per minute even at the remarkably low temperature of 80⁰C. As grown, the films are carbon- and oxygen-free, and have a columnar morphology. The spacings between the columns become smaller and the films become smoother as the growth temperature is increased. The composition of the films is consistent with a stoichiometry of Mn₅N₂.

Effect of temperature on genomic and some biological indices during embryonic and larval development of Caspian trout Salmo trutta caspius Kessler, 1877

Since 1966 especially recent decade, Caspian trout (Salmo trutta caspius Kessler, 1877) considered as a strategic endemic species for Caspian Sea fisheries resources also coldwater aquaculture in Iran. Nowadays habitat condition effects on this subspecies during life stages, artificial breeding and incubation period noticed by research and execution sessions of fisheries in Iran. Incubation duration of Caspian trout from artificial fertilization followed by green egg and eyed egg, hatching and yolk sac absorption identified as most sensitive stages for fish and any pollution, stress and deviation by natural life conditions of embryo up to larvae could provide possible mortalities and observable or hidden alterations. Among all vital factors for Caspian trout welfare even in conservation plans and stocks rehabilitation programs or recent attempts for domestication of this fish for introduction to cold water aquaculture industry, water temperature as the most important physical factor which might conserve or induce stress to rearing environment condition is not considered yet. In hatcheries activities, the temperature for incubation and rearing Caspian trout eggs is determining by available water temperature and wide range of temperatures in governmental or private farms is using depend on the water resources availability. Also global climate change consideration and increase temperature trend accompany with group of physical and chemical factors provided by fish farm discharges and other source points entered to the migration pathway of Caspian trout in spawning season were not investigated before. Natural spawning migration pathway is upstream of Caspian tout south and south west rivers especially in Cheshmehkileh upstream in Tonekabon, Iran directed this research focus on the mentioned location. For simulation of natural spawning bed for Caspian trout, water supplied from the upstream of Daryasar branch as headwater of Cheshmehkileh River which provided REDD water condition for in vitro incubation. Green eggs treatments of wild and F1 cultured brooders both 3+ were incubated. Incubation implemented in dark, constant temperature (4, 8, 12 degree centigrade) and DO–pH–temperature digital monitoring in 3 recycling incubators ended to yolk sac absorption and entering larval stage. Hatching success, possible genome alterations by HSP70 gene expression and comet assay implemented as diagnostic tools in 3 life stages of eyed egg– Alevin and Larvae. Numbers and diameters of larvae white fiber muscles measured by histology experiment and Hematoxylin–eosine staining. Results stated significant effect of incubation temperature on hatching success, genome and white fiber muscles of wild and F1 samples. Hatching success measured as 31% and 38% for cultured and wild cold treatments, 79% and 91% for normal and 64% and 73% for warm cultured and wild treatments respectively. Considerable mortality occurred for cold treatment and 8 degree centigrade stated the best thermal condition in normal incubator according to hatching success in wild Caspian trout samples.

Site Specifc Growth of Metal Catalyzed Silica Nanowires for Biological and Chemical Sensing

In this research the integration of nanostructures and micro-scale devices was investigated using silica nanowires to develop a simple yet robust nanomanufacturing technique for improving the detection parameters of chemical and biological sensors. This has been achieved with the use of a dielectric barrier layer, to restrict nanowire growth to site-specific locations which has removed the need for post growth processing, by making it possible to place nanostructures on pre-pattern substrates. Nanowires were synthesized using the Vapor-Liquid-Solid growth method. Process parameters (temperature and time) and manufacturing aspects (structural integrity and biocompatibility) were investigated. Silica nanowires were observed experimentally to determine how their physical and chemical properties could be tuned for integration into existing sensing structures. Growth kinetic experiments performed using gold and palladium catalysts at 1050 ˚C for 60 minutes in an open-tube furnace yielded dense and consistent silica nanowire growth. This consistent growth led to the development of growth model fitting, through use of the Maximum Likelihood Estimation (MLE) and Bayesian hierarchical modeling. Transmission electron microscopy studies revealed the nanowires to be amorphous and X-ray diffraction confirmed the composition to be SiO2 . Silica nanowires were monitored in epithelial breast cancer media using Impedance spectroscopy, to test biocompatibility, due to potential in vivo use as a diagnostic aid. It was found that palladium catalyzed silica nanowires were toxic to breast cancer cells, however, nanowires were inert at 1µg/mL concentrations. Additionally a method for direct nanowire integration was developed that allowed for silica nanowires to be grown directly into interdigitated sensing structures. This technique eliminates the need for physical nanowire transfer thus preserving nanowire structure and performance integrity and further reduces fabrication cost. Successful nanowire integration was physically verified using Scanning electron microscopy and confirmed electrically using Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy of immobilized Prostate Specific Antigens (PSA). The experiments performed above serve as a guideline to addressing the metallurgic challenges in nanoscale integration of materials with varying composition and to understanding the effects of nanomaterials on biological structures that come in contact with the human body.