Bioremediation of PAHs - Limitations and soultions

Introduction 1.1 Occurrence of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) in the environment Worldwide industrial and agricultural developments have released a large number of natural and synthetic hazardous compounds into the environment due to careless waste disposal, illegal waste dumping and accidental spills. As a result, there are numerous sites in the world that require cleanup of soils and groundwater. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are one of the major groups of these contaminants (Da Silva et al., 2003). PAHs constitute a diverse class of organic compounds consisting of two or more aromatic rings with various structural configurations (Prabhu and Phale, 2003). Being a derivative of benzene, PAHs are thermodynamically stable. In addition, these chemicals tend to adhere to particle surfaces, such as soils, because of their low water solubility and strong hydrophobicity, and this results in greater persistence under natural conditions. This persistence coupled with their potential carcinogenicity makes PAHs problematic environmental contaminants (Cerniglia, 1992; Sutherland, 1992). PAHs are widely found in high concentrations at many industrial sites, particularly those associated with petroleum, gas production and wood preserving industries (Wilson and Jones, 1993). 1.2 Remediation technologies Conventional techniques used for the remediation of soil polluted with organic contaminants include excavation of the contaminated soil and disposal to a landfill or capping - containment - of the contaminated areas of a site. These methods have some drawbacks. The first method simply moves the contamination elsewhere and may create significant risks in the excavation, handling and transport of hazardous material. Additionally, it is very difficult and increasingly expensive to find new landfill sites for the final disposal of the material. The cap and containment method is only an interim solution since the contamination remains on site, requiring monitoring and maintenance of the isolation barriers long into the future, with all the associated costs and potential liability. A better approach than these traditional methods is to completely destroy the pollutants, if possible, or transform them into harmless substances. Some technologies that have been used are high-temperature incineration and various types of chemical decomposition (for example, base-catalyzed dechlorination, UV oxidation). However, these methods have significant disadvantages, principally their technological complexity, high cost , and the lack of public acceptance. Bioremediation, on the contrast, is a promising option for the complete removal and destruction of contaminants. 1.3 Bioremediation of PAH contaminated soil & groundwater Bioremediation is the use of living organisms, primarily microorganisms, to degrade or detoxify hazardous wastes into harmless substances such as carbon dioxide, water and cell biomass Most PAHs are biodegradable unter natural conditions (Da Silva et al., 2003; Meysami and Baheri, 2003) and bioremediation for cleanup of PAH wastes has been extensively studied at both laboratory and commercial levels- It has been implemented at a number of contaminated sites, including the cleanup of the Exxon Valdez oil spill in Prince William Sound, Alaska in 1989, the Mega Borg spill off the Texas coast in 1990 and the Burgan Oil Field, Kuwait in 1994 (Purwaningsih, 2002). Different strategies for PAH bioremediation, such as in situ , ex situ or on site bioremediation were developed in recent years. In situ bioremediation is a technique that is applied to soil and groundwater at the site without removing the contaminated soil or groundwater, based on the provision of optimum conditions for microbiological contaminant breakdown.. Ex situ bioremediation of PAHs, on the other hand, is a technique applied to soil and groundwater which has been removed from the site via excavation (soil) or pumping (water). Hazardous contaminants are converted in controlled bioreactors into harmless compounds in an efficient manner. 1.4 Bioavailability of PAH in the subsurface Frequently, PAH contamination in the environment is occurs as contaminants that are sorbed onto soilparticles rather than in phase (NAPL, non aqueous phase liquids). It is known that the biodegradation rate of most PAHs sorbed onto soil is far lower than rates measured in solution cultures of microorganisms with pure solid pollutants (Alexander and Scow, 1989; Hamaker, 1972). It is generally believed that only that fraction of PAHs dissolved in the solution can be metabolized by microorganisms in soil. The amount of contaminant that can be readily taken up and degraded by microorganisms is defined as bioavailability (Bosma et al., 1997; Maier, 2000). Two phenomena have been suggested to cause the low bioavailability of PAHs in soil (Danielsson, 2000). The first one is strong adsorption of the contaminants to the soil constituents which then leads to very slow release rates of contaminants to the aqueous phase. Sorption is often well correlated with soil organic matter content (Means, 1980) and significantly reduces biodegradation (Manilal and Alexander, 1991). The second phenomenon is slow mass transfer of pollutants, such as pore diffusion in the soil aggregates or diffusion in the organic matter in the soil. The complex set of these physical, chemical and biological processes is schematically illustrated in Figure 1. As shown in Figure 1, biodegradation processes are taking place in the soil solution while diffusion processes occur in the narrow pores in and between soil aggregates (Danielsson, 2000). Seemingly contradictory studies can be found in the literature that indicate the rate and final extent of metabolism may be either lower or higher for sorbed PAHs by soil than those for pure PAHs (Van Loosdrecht et al., 1990). These contrasting results demonstrate that the bioavailability of organic contaminants sorbed onto soil is far from being well understood. Besides bioavailability, there are several other factors influencing the rate and extent of biodegradation of PAHs in soil including microbial population characteristics, physical and chemical properties of PAHs and environmental factors (temperature, moisture, pH, degree of contamination). Figure 1: Schematic diagram showing possible rate-limiting processes during bioremediation of hydrophobic organic contaminants in a contaminated soil-water system (not to scale) (Danielsson, 2000). 1.5 Increasing the bioavailability of PAH in soil Attempts to improve the biodegradation of PAHs in soil by increasing their bioavailability include the use of surfactants , solvents or solubility enhancers.. However, introduction of synthetic surfactant may result in the addition of one more pollutant. (Wang and Brusseau, 1993).A study conducted by Mulder et al. showed that the introduction of hydropropyl-ß-cyclodextrin (HPCD), a well-known PAH solubility enhancer, significantly increased the solubilization of PAHs although it did not improve the biodegradation rate of PAHs (Mulder et al., 1998), indicating that further research is required in order to develop a feasible and efficient remediation method. Enhancing the extent of PAHs mass transfer from the soil phase to the liquid might prove an efficient and environmentally low-risk alternative way of addressing the problem of slow PAH biodegradation in soil.

Modelizzazione spazio-temporale delle dinamiche di uso del suolo ed analisi comparativa di differenti approcci predittivi. Uso integrato di SIG e telerilevamento nello studio dei processi di deforestazione nella regione La Joyanca in Peten, Guatemala

L’uso frequente dei modelli predittivi per l’analisi di sistemi complessi, naturali o artificiali, sta cambiando il tradizionale approccio alle problematiche ambientali e di rischio. Il continuo miglioramento delle capacità di elaborazione dei computer facilita l’utilizzo e la risoluzione di metodi numerici basati su una discretizzazione spazio-temporale che permette una modellizzazione predittiva di sistemi reali complessi, riproducendo l’evoluzione dei loro patterns spaziali ed calcolando il grado di precisione della simulazione. In questa tesi presentiamo una applicazione di differenti metodi predittivi (Geomatico, Reti Neurali, Land Cover Modeler e Dinamica EGO) in un’area test del Petén, Guatemala. Durante gli ultimi decenni questa regione, inclusa nella Riserva di Biosfera Maya, ha conosciuto una rapida crescita demografica ed un’incontrollata pressione sulle sue risorse naturali. L’area test puó essere suddivisa in sotto-regioni caratterizzate da differenti dinamiche di uso del suolo. Comprendere e quantificare queste differenze permette una migliore approssimazione del sistema reale; é inoltre necessario integrare tutti i parametri fisici e socio-economici, per una rappresentazione più completa della complessità dell’impatto antropico. Data l’assenza di informazioni dettagliate sull’area di studio, quasi tutti i dati sono stati ricavati dall’elaborazione di 11 immagini ETM+, TM e SPOT; abbiamo poi realizzato un’analisi multitemporale dei cambi uso del suolo passati e costruito l’input per alimentare i modelli predittivi. I dati del 1998 e 2000 sono stati usati per la fase di calibrazione per simulare i cambiamenti nella copertura terrestre del 2003, scelta come data di riferimento per la validazione dei risultati. Quest’ultima permette di evidenziare le qualità ed i limiti per ogni modello nelle differenti sub-regioni.

Programmazione funzionale in spazio logaritmico: una libreria di funzione aritmetiche

In questa Tesi forniamo una libreria di funzioni aritmetiche che operano in spazio logaritmico rispetto all'input. Partiamo con un'analisi dei campi in cui è necessario o conveniente porre dei limiti, in termini di spazio utilizzato, alla computazione di un determinato software. Vista la larga diffusione del Web, si ha a che fare con collezioni di dati enormi e che magari risiedono su server remoti: c'è quindi la necessità di scrivere programmi che operino su questi dati, pur non potendo questi dati entrare tutti insieme nella memoria di lavoro del programma stesso. In seguito studiamo le nozioni teoriche di Complessità, in particolare quelle legate allo spazio di calcolo, utilizzando un modello alternativo di Macchina di Turing: la Offline Turing Machine. Presentiamo quindi un nuovo “modello” di programmazione: la computazione bidirezionale, che riteniamo essere un buon modo di strutturare la computazione limitata in spazio. Forniamo poi una “guida al programmatore” per un linguaggio di recente introduzione, IntML, che permettere la realizzazione di programmi logspace mantenendo però il tradizionale stile di programmazione funzionale. Infine, per mostrare come IntML permetta concretamente di scrivere programmi limitati in spazio, realizziamo una libreria di funzioni aritmetiche che operano in spazio logaritmico. In particolare, mostriamo funzioni per calcolare divisione intera e resto sui naturali, e funzioni per confrontare, sommare e moltiplicare numeri espressi come parole binarie.

Il ruolo del collicolo superiore nell'orientamento spaziale

This thesis was aimed at verifying the role of the superior colliculus (SC) in human spatial orienting. To do so, subjects performed two experimental tasks that have been shown to involve SC’s activation in animals, that is a multisensory integration task (Experiment 1 and 2) and a visual target selection task (Experiment 3). To investigate this topic in humans, we took advantage of neurophysiological finding revealing that retinal S-cones do not send projections to the collicular and magnocellular pathway. In the Experiment 1, subjects performed a simple reaction-time task in which they were required to respond as quickly as possible to any sensory stimulus (visual, auditory or bimodal audio-visual). The visual stimulus could be an S-cone stimulus (invisible to the collicular and magnocellular pathway) or a long wavelength stimulus (visible to the SC). Results showed that when using S-cone stimuli, RTs distribution was simply explained by probability summation, indicating that the redundant auditory and visual channels are independent. Conversely, with red long-wavelength stimuli, visible to the SC, the RTs distribution was related to nonlinear neural summation, which constitutes evidence of integration of different sensory information. We also demonstrate that when AV stimuli were presented at fixation, so that the spatial orienting component of the task was reduced, neural summation was possible regardless of stimulus color. Together, these findings provide support for a pivotal role of the SC in mediating multisensory spatial integration in humans, when behavior involves spatial orienting responses. Since previous studies have shown an anatomical asymmetry of fibres projecting to the SC from the hemiretinas, the Experiment 2 was aimed at investigating temporo-nasal asymmetry in multisensory integration. To do so, subjects performed monocularly the same task shown in the Experiment 1. When spatially coincident audio-visual stimuli were visible to the SC (i.e. red stimuli), the RTE depended on a neural coactivation mechanism, suggesting an integration of multisensory information. When using stimuli invisible to the SC (i.e. purple stimuli), the RTE depended only on a simple statistical facilitation effect, in which the two sensory stimuli were processed by independent channels. Finally, we demonstrate that the multisensory integration effect was stronger for stimuli presented to the temporal hemifield than to the nasal hemifield. Taken together, these findings suggested that multisensory stimulation can be differentially effective depending on specific stimulus parameters. The Experiment 3 was aimed at verifying the role of the SC in target selection by using a color-oddity search task, comprising stimuli either visible or invisible to the collicular and magnocellular pathways. Subjects were required to make a saccade toward a target that could be presented alone or with three distractors of another color (either S-cone or long-wavelength). When using S-cone distractors, invisible to the SC, localization errors were similar to those observed in the distractor-free condition. Conversely, with long-wavelength distractors, visible to the SC, saccadic localization error and variability were significantly greater than in either the distractor-free condition or the S-cone distractors condition. Our results clearly indicate that the SC plays a direct role in visual target selection in humans. Overall, our results indicate that the SC plays an important role in mediating spatial orienting responses both when required covert (Experiments 1 and 2) and overt orienting (Experiment 3).

Max Bill in Italia . Lo spazio logico dell'architettura

I Max Bill is an intense giornata of a big fresco. An analysis of the main social, artistic and cultural events throughout the twentieth century is needed in order to trace his career through his masterpieces and architectures. Some of the faces of this hypothetical mural painting are, among others, Le Corbusier, Walter Gropius, Ernesto Nathan Rogers, Kandinskij, Klee, Mondrian, Vatongerloo, Ignazio Silone, while the backcloth is given by artistic avant-gardes, Bauhaus, International Exhibitions, CIAM, war events, reconstruction, Milan Triennali, Venice Biennali, the School of Ulm. Architect, even though more known as painter, sculptor, designer and graphic artist, Max Bill attends the Bauhaus as a student in the years 1927-1929, and from this experience derives the main features of a rational, objective, constructive and non figurative art. His research is devoted to give his art a scientific methodology: each work proceeds from the analysis of a problem to the logical and always verifiable solution of the same problem. By means of composition elements (such as rhythm, seriality, theme and its variation, harmony and dissonance), he faces, with consistent results, themes apparently very distant from each other as the project for the H.f.G. or the design for a font. Mathematics are a constant reference frame as field of certainties, order, objectivity: ‘for Bill mathematics are never confined to a simple function: they represent a climate of spiritual certainties, and also the theme of non attempted in its purest state, objectivity of the sign and of the geometrical place, and at the same time restlessness of the infinity: Limited and Unlimited ’. In almost sixty years of activity, experiencing all artistic fields, Max Bill works, projects, designs, holds conferences and exhibitions in Europe, Asia and Americas, confronting himself with the most influencing personalities of the twentieth century. In such a vast scenery, the need to limit the investigation field combined with the necessity to address and analyse the unpublished and original aspect of Bill’s relations with Italy. The original contribution of the present research regards this particular ‘geographic delimitation’; in particular, beyond the deep cultural exchanges between Bill and a series of Milanese architects, most of all with Rogers, two main projects have been addressed: the realtà nuova at Milan Triennale in 1947, and the Contemporary Art Museum in Florence in 1980. It is important to note that these projects have not been previously investigated, and the former never appears in the sources either. These works, together with the most well-known ones, such as the projects for the VI and IX Triennale, and the Swiss pavilion for the Biennale, add important details to the reference frame of the relations which took place between Zurich and Milan. Most of the occasions for exchanges took part in between the Thirties and the Fifties, years during which Bill underwent a significant period of artistic growth. He meets the Swiss progressive architects and the Paris artists from the Abstraction-Création movement, enters the CIAM, collaborates with Le Corbusier to the third volume of his Complete Works, and in Milan he works and gets confronted with the events related to post-war reconstruction. In these years Bill defines his own working methodology, attaining an artistic maturity in his work. The present research investigates the mentioned time period, despite some necessary exceptions. II The official Max Bill bibliography is naturally wide, including spreading works along with ones more devoted to analytical investigation, mainly written in German and often translated into French and English (Max Bill himself published his works in three languages). Few works have been published in Italian and, excluding the catalogue of the Parma exhibition from 1977, they cannot be considered comprehensive. Many publications are exhibition catalogues, some of which include essays written by Max Bill himself, some others bring Bill’s comments in a educational-pedagogical approach, to accompany the observer towards a full understanding of the composition processes of his art works. Bill also left a great amount of theoretical speculations to encourage a critical reading of his works in the form of books edited or written by him, and essays published in ‘Werk’, magazine of the Swiss Werkbund, and other international reviews, among which Domus and Casabella. These three reviews have been important tools of analysis, since they include tracks of some of Max Bill’s architectural works. The architectural aspect is less investigated than the plastic and pictorial ones in all the main reference manuals on the subject: Benevolo, Tafuri and Dal Co, Frampton, Allenspach consider Max Bill as an artist proceeding in his work from Bauhaus in the Ulm experience . A first filing of his works was published in 2004 in the monographic issue of the Spanish magazine 2G, together with critical essays by Karin Gimmi, Stanislaus von Moos, Arthur Rüegg and Hans Frei, and in ‘Konkrete Architektur?’, again by Hans Frei. Moreover, the monographic essay on the Atelier Haus building by Arthur Rüegg from 1997, and the DPA 17 issue of the Catalonia Polytechnic with contributions of Carlos Martì, Bruno Reichlin and Ton Salvadò, the latter publication concentrating on a few Bill’s themes and architectures. An urge to studying and going in depth in Max Bill’s works was marked in 2008 by the centenary of his birth and by a recent rediscovery of Bill as initiator of the ‘minimalist’ tradition in Swiss architecture. Bill’s heirs are both very active in promoting exhibitions, researching and publishing. Jakob Bill, Max Bill’s son and painter himself, recently published a work on Bill’s experience in Bauhaus, and earlier on he had published an in-depth study on ‘Endless Ribbons’ sculptures. Angela Thomas Schmid, Bill’s wife and art historian, published in end 2008 the first volume of a biography on Max Bill and, together with the film maker Eric Schmid, produced a documentary film which was also presented at the last Locarno Film Festival. Both biography and documentary concentrate on Max Bill’s political involvement, from antifascism and 1968 protest movements to Bill experiences as Zurich Municipality councilman and member of the Swiss Confederation Parliament. In the present research, the bibliography includes also direct sources, such as interviews and original materials in the form of letters correspondence and graphic works together with related essays, kept in the max+binia+jakob bill stiftung archive in Zurich. III The results of the present research are organized into four main chapters, each of them subdivided into four parts. The first chapter concentrates on the research field, reasons, tools and methodologies employed, whereas the second one consists of a short biographical note organized by topics, introducing the subject of the research. The third chapter, which includes unpublished events, traces the historical and cultural frame with particular reference to the relations between Max Bill and the Italian scene, especially Milan and the architects Rogers and Baldessari around the Fifties, searching the themes and the keys for interpretation of Bill’s architectures and investigating the critical debate on the reviews and the plastic survey through sculpture. The fourth and last chapter examines four main architectures chosen on a geographical basis, all devoted to exhibition spaces, investigating Max Bill’s composition process related to the pictorial field. Paintings has surely been easier and faster to investigate and verify than the building field. A doctoral thesis discussed in Lausanne in 1977 investigating Max Bill’s plastic and pictorial works, provided a series of devices which were corrected and adapted for the definition of the interpretation grid for the composition structures of Bill’s main architectures. Four different tools are employed in the investigation of each work: a context analysis related to chapter three results; a specific theoretical essay by Max Bill briefly explaining his main theses, even though not directly linked to the very same work of art considered; the interpretation grid for the composition themes derived from a related pictorial work; the architecture drawing and digital three-dimensional model. The double analysis of the architectural and pictorial fields is functional to underlining the relation among the different elements of the composition process; the two fields, however, cannot be compared and they stay, in Max Bill’s works as in the present research, interdependent though self-sufficient. IV An important aspect of Max Bill production is self-referentiality: talking of Max Bill, also through Max Bill, as a need for coherence instead of a method limitation. Ernesto Nathan Rogers describes Bill as the last humanist, and his horizon is the known world but, as the ‘Concrete Art’ of which he is one of the main representatives, his production justifies itself: Max Bill not only found a method, but he autonomously re-wrote the ‘rules of the game’, derived timeless theoretical principles and verified them through a rich and interdisciplinary artistic production. The most recurrent words in the present research work are synthesis, unity, space and logic. These terms are part of Max Bill’s vocabulary and can be referred to his works. Similarly, graphic settings or analytical schemes in this research text referring to or commenting Bill’s architectural projects were drawn up keeping in mind the concise precision of his architectural design. As for Mies van der Rohe, it has been written that Max Bill took art to ‘zero degree’ reaching in this way a high complexity. His works are a synthesis of art: they conceptually encompass all previous and –considered their developments- most of contemporary pictures. Contents and message are generally explicitly declared in the title or in Bill’s essays on his artistic works and architectural projects: the beneficiary is invited to go through and re-build the process of synthesis generating the shape. In the course of the interview with the Milan artist Getulio Alviani, he tells how he would not write more than a page for an essay on Josef Albers: everything was already evident ‘on the surface’ and any additional sentence would be redundant. Two years after that interview, these pages attempt to decompose and single out the elements and processes connected with some of Max Bill’s works which, for their own origin, already contain all possible explanations and interpretations. The formal reduction in favour of contents maximization is, perhaps, Max Bill’s main lesson.

Una rassegna di protocolli di routing per reti radio cognitive ad hoc

Questa tesi si propone di presentare e classificare per caratteristiche simili i protocolli di routing che ad oggi sono utilizzati nelle Cognitive Radio Ad Hoc Networks. Pertanto dapprima nel Capitolo 1 si introdurranno le radio cognitive con i concetti che sono alla base di questa tecnologia e le principali motivazioni che hanno portato alla loro nascita e poi al loro sviluppo. Nel Capitolo 2 si parlerà delle cognitive networks o meglio delle cognitive radio networks, e delle loro peculiarità. Nel terzo e nel quarto capitolo si affronteranno le CRAHNs e in particolare quali sono le sfide a cui devono far fronte i protocolli di routing che operano su di essa, partendo dall'esaminare quali sono le differenze che distinguono questa tipologia di rete da una classica rete wireless ad hoc con nodi in grado di muoversi nello spazio (una MANET). Infine nell'ultimo capitolo si cercherà di classificare i protocolli in base ad alcune loro caratteristiche, vedendo poi più nel dettaglio alcuni tra i protocolli più usati.

Le macchine multifase nelle applicazioni Sensorless:indagine teorico-sperimentale di un azionamento basato su DSP per macchine asincrone eptafase

Fino ad un recente passato, le macchine elettriche di tipo trifase costituivano l’unica soluzione in ambito industriale per la realizzazione di azionamenti di grande potenza. Da quando i motori sono gestiti da convertitori elettronici di potenza si è ottenuto un notevole passo in avanti verso l’innovazione tecnologica. Infatti, negli ultimi decenni, le tecnologie sempre più all’avanguardia e l’aumento dell’utilizzo dell’elettronica, sia in campo civile quanto in quello industriale, hanno contribuito a una riduzione dei costi dei relativi componenti; questa situazione ha permesso di utilizzare tecnologie elaborate che in passato avevano costi elevati e quindi risultavano di scarso interesse commerciale. Nel campo delle macchine elettriche tutto questo ha permesso non solo la realizzazione di azionamenti alimentati e controllati tramite inverter, in grado di garantire prestazioni nettamente migliori di quelle ottenute con i precedenti sistemi di controllo, ma anche l’avvento di una nuova tipologia di macchine con un numero di fasi diverso da quello tradizionale trifase, usualmente impiegato nella generazione e distribuzione dell’energia elettrica. Questo fatto ha destato crescente interesse per lo studio di macchine elettriche multifase. Il campo di studio delle macchine multifase è un settore relativamente nuovo ed in grande fermento, ma è già possibile affermare che le suddette macchine sono in grado di fornire prestazioni migliori di quelle trifase. Un motore con un numero di fasi maggiore di tre presenta numerosi vantaggi: 1. la possibilità di poter dividere la potenza su più fasi, riducendo la taglia in corrente degli interruttori statici dell’inverter; 2. la maggiore affidabilità in caso di guasto di una fase; 3. la possibilità di sfruttare le armoniche di campo magnetico al traferro per ottenere migliori prestazioni in termini di coppia elettromagnetica sviluppata (riduzione dell’ampiezza e incremento della frequenza della pulsazione di coppia); 4. l’opportunità di creare azionamenti elettrici multi-motore, collegando più macchine in serie e comandandole con un unico convertitore di potenza; 5. Maggiori e più efficaci possibilità di utilizzo nelle applicazioni Sensorless. Il presente lavoro di tesi, ha come oggetto lo studio e l’implementazione di una innovativa tecnica di controllo di tipo “sensorless”, da applicare in azionamenti ad orientamento di campo per macchine asincrone eptafase. Nel primo capitolo vengono illustrate le caratteristiche e le equazioni rappresentanti il modello della macchina asincrona eptafase. Nel secondo capitolo si mostrano il banco di prova e le caratteristiche dei vari componenti. Nel terzo capitolo sono rappresentate le tecniche di modulazione applicabili per macchine multifase. Nel quarto capitolo vengono illustrati il modello del sistema implementato in ambiente Simulink ed i risultati delle simulazioni eseguite. Nel quinto capitolo viene presentato il Code Composer Studio, il programma necessario al funzionamento del DSP. Nel sesto capitolo, sono presentati e commentati i risultati delle prove sperimentali.

Traces de terre, traces d'encre... La rappresentazione dello spazio nella letteratura caraibica. (Francofona e Anglofona)

This study concerns the representation of space in Caribbean literature, both francophone and Anglophone and, in particular, but not only, in the martinican literature, in the works of the authors born in the island. The analysis focus on the second half of the last century, a period in which the martinican production of novels and romances increased considerably, and where the representation and the rule of space had a relevant place. So, the thesis explores the literary modalities of this representation. The work is constituted of 5 chapters and the critical and methodological approaches are both of an analytical and comparative type. The first chapter “The caribbean space: geography, history and society” presents the geographic context, through an analysis of the historical and political major events occurred in the Caribbean archipelago, in particular of the French Antilles, from the first colonization until the départementalisation. The first paragraph “The colonized space: historical-political excursus” the explores the history of the European colonization that marked forever the theatre of the relationship between Europe, Africa and the New World. This social situation take a long and complex process of “Re-appropriation and renegotiation of the space”, (second paragraph) always the space of the Other, that interest both the Antillean society and the writers’ universe. So, a series of questions take place in the third paragraph “Landscape and identity”: what is the function of space in the process of identity construction? What are the literary forms and representations of space in the Caribbean context? Could the writing be a tool of cultural identity definition, both individual and collective? The second chapter “The literary representation of the Antillean space” is a methodological analysis of the notions of literary space and descriptive gender. The first paragraph “The literary space of and in the novel” is an excursus of the theory of such critics like Blanchot, Bachelard, Genette and Greimas, and in particular the recent innovation of the 20th century; the second one “Space of the Antilles, space of the writing” is an attempt to apply this theory to the Antillean literary space. Finally the last paragraph “Signs on the page: the symbolic places of the antillean novel landscape” presents an inventory of the most recurrent antillean places (mornes, ravines, traces, cachots, En-ville,…), symbols of the history and the past, described in literary works, but according to new modalities of representation. The third chapter, the core of the thesis, “Re-drawing the map of the French Antilles” focused the study of space representation on francophone literature, in particular on a selected works of four martinican writers, like Roland Brival, Édouard Glissant, Patrick Chamoiseau and Raphaël Confiant. Through this section, a spatial evolution comes out step by step, from the first to the second paragraph, whose titles are linked together “The novel space evolution: from the forest of the morne… to the jungle of the ville”. The virgin and uncontaminated space of the Antilles, prior to the colonisation, where the Indios lived in harmony with the nature, find a representation in both works of Brival (Le sang du roucou, Le dernier des Aloukous) and of Glissant (Le Quatrième siècle, Ormerod). The arrival of the European colonizer brings a violent and sudden metamorphosis of the originary space and landscape, together with the traditions and culture of the Caraïbes population. These radical changes are visible in the works of Chamoiseau (Chronique des sept misères, Texaco, L’esclave vieil homme et le molosse, Livret des villes du deuxième monde, Un dimanche au cachot) and Confiant (Le Nègre et l’Amiral, Eau de Café, Ravines du devant-jour, Nègre marron) that explore the urban space of the creole En-ville. The fourth chapter represents the “2nd step: the Anglophone novel space” in the exploration of literary representation of space, through an analytical study of the works of three Anglophone writers, the 19th century Lafcadio Hearn (A Midsummer Trip To the West Indies, Two Years in the French West Indies, Youma) and the contemporary authors Derek Walcott (Omeros, Map of the New World, What the Twilight says) and Edward Kamau Brathwaite (The Arrivants: A New World Trilogy). The Anglophone voice of the Caribbean archipelago brings a very interesting contribution to the critical idea of a spatial evolution in the literary representation of space, started with francophone production: “The spatial evolution goes on: from the Martiniques Sketches of Hearn… to the modern bards of Caribbean archipelago” is the new linked title of the two paragraphs. The fifth chapter “Extended look, space shared: the Caribbean archipelago” is a comparative analysis of the results achieved in the prior sections, through a dialogue between all the texts in the first paragraph “Francophone and Anglophone representation of space compared: differences and analogies”. The last paragraph instead is an attempt of re-negotiate the conventional notions of space and place, from a geographical and physical meaning, to the new concept of “commonplace”, not synonym of prejudice, but “common place” of sharing and dialogue. The question sets in the last paragraph “The “commonplaces” of the physical and mental map of the Caribbean archipelago: toward a non-place?” contains the critical idea of the entire thesis.

Gli assetti dipartimentali ospedalieri tra strutture formali e organizzazione informale

Il confronto in corso tra gli esperti di management sanitario sui dipartimenti ospedalieri, la crescente attenzione sui modelli di organizzazione a rete e le indagini sui servizi sanitari condotte con strumenti di analisi dei network hanno rappresentato la base su cui sviluppare il disegno dello studio. La prospettiva relazionale e le tecniche di social network analysis (Sna) sono state impiegate in un indagine empirica effettuata presso tre Dipartimenti Ospedalieri dell’Azienda USL di Bologna per osservare la struttura delle relazioni che intercorrono nell’ambito dei dipartimenti, tra le unità operative e tra i clinici, al fine di assicurare il quotidiano svolgersi dei processi clinico assistenziali dei pazienti. L’indagine si è posta tre obiettivi. Il primo è quello di confrontare la rete delle relazioni “reali” che intercorrono tra unità operative e tra clinici con le relazioni “progettate” attraverso l’afferenza delle unità operative nei dipartimenti e dei singoli clinici nelle unità operative. In sostanza si tratta di confrontare, con intenti esclusivamente conoscitivi, la struttura organizzativa formale – istituzionale con quella “informale”, che emerge dalle relazioni giornaliere tra i professionisti. In secondo luogo si intende comprendere se e come i fattori di natura attributiva che caratterizzano i singoli rispondenti, (es. età, sesso, laurea, anni di permanenza in azienda, ecc.) incidano sulla natura e sull’intensità delle relazioni e delle collaborazioni intrattenute con i colleghi all’interno dell’azienda. L’analisi ha un intento “esplicativo”, in quanto si cerca di indagare come le similitudini nelle caratteristiche individuali possano o meno incidere sull’intensità degli scambi e quindi delle collaborazioni tra professionisti. Il terzo obiettivo è volto a comprendere se e come i fattori attributivi e/o relazionali siamo in grado di spiegare l’attitudine mostrata dai singoli professionisti rispetto l’adozione di un approccio alla pratica clinica ispirato all’Evidence based medicine. Lo scopo è quello di verificare se la disponibilità / orientamento ad operare in una prospettiva evidence based sia più legata ad elementi e caratteristiche personali piuttosto che all’influenza esercitata da coloro con i quali si entra in contatto per motivi lavorativi. La relativa semplicità della fase di indagine ha indotto ad arricchire i contenuti e gli obiettivi originari del lavoro allo scopo di correlare indicatori relazionali e attributivi con indicatori di “performance”, in particolare di efficienza e appropriatezza. Le relazioni sono state rilevate attraverso un questionario sociometrico inserito in uno spazio web accessibile dalla rete ospedaliera e compilato online da parte dei medici. Il questionario è stato organizzato in tre sezioni: la prima per la raccolta di informazioni anagrafiche e dati attributivi dei clinici; la seconda volta a raccogliere i dati relazionali, funzionali e di consulenza, verso le equipe di professionisti (unità operative) e verso i singoli colleghi clinici; la terza sezione è dedicata alla raccolta di informazioni sull’utilizzo delle evidenze scientifiche a supporto della propria pratica clinica (consultazione di riviste, banche dati, rapporti di HTA, etc,) e sulla effettiva possibilità di accesso a tali strumenti. L’azienda ha fornito i dati di struttura e la base dati degli indicatori di attività delle UO arruolate nello studio. La compliance complessiva per i tre dipartimenti è stata pari a circa il 92% (302 rispondenti su un campione di 329 medici.). Non si sono rilevate differenze significative sulla compliance per i tre dipartimenti considerati. L’elaborazione dei dati è stata effettuata mediante specifici software per l’analisi delle reti sociali, UCINET 6 per il calcolo degli indicatori relazionali (centralità, densità, structural holes etc.), e Pajek per l’analisi grafica dei network. L’ultima fase è stata realizzata con l’ausilio del software statistico STATA vers. 10. L’analisi dei risultati è distinta in due 2 fasi principali. In primis è stato descritto il network di relazioni professionali rilevate, sono stai calcolati i relativi indicatori di centralità relazionale e verificato il grado di sovrapposizione tra struttura formale dei dipartimenti in studio con le relazioni informali che si stabiliscono tra di essi nell’ambito clinico. Successivamente è stato analizzato l’impatto che le relazioni esercitano sulla propensione da parte dei singoli medici a utilizzare nuove evidenze scientifiche I primi risultati emersi dallo studio forniscono interessanti evidenze, con particolare riguardo al dato di un discreto grado di “sovrapposizione” tra struttura formale e informale delle unità organizzative in studio e a correlazioni significative tra fattori relazionali e attitudine dei medici verso l’utilizzo dell’approccio EBM. Altre evidenze, in specie la correlazione tra “centralità” degli attori organizzativi e alcuni indicatori di performance /appropriatezza, meritano ulteriori approfondimenti e una definitiva validazione. In conclusione lo studio dimostra che la prospettiva relazionale e la Sna consentono di porre in evidenza caratteristiche dei dipartimenti, dei suoi attori e delle loro reti di reciproche relazioni, in grado di favorire la comprensione di alcune dinamiche ricercate proprio attraverso l’organizzazione dipartimentale e quindi di specifico interesse per il management, i clinici e quanti altri impegnati nella gestione e nello sviluppo di questo modello di organizzazione dell’ospedale.

Controllo dell'atto di prensione: coinvolgimento dell'area V6A nell'orientamento del polso

Prehension in an act of coordinated reaching and grasping. The reaching component is concerned with bringing the hand to object to be grasped (transport phase); the grasping component refers to the shaping of the hand according to the object features (grasping phase) (Jeannerod, 1981). Reaching and grasping involve different muscles, proximal and distal muscles respectively, and are controlled by different parietofrontal circuit (Jeannerod et al., 1995): a medial circuit, involving area of superior parietal lobule and dorsal premotor area 6 (PMd) (dorsomedial visual stream), is mainly concerned with reaching; a lateral circuit, involving the inferior parietal lobule and ventral premotor area 6 (PMv) (dorsolateral visual stream), with grasping. Area V6A is located in the caudalmost part of the superior parietal lobule, so it belongs to the dorsomedial visual stream; it contains neurons sensitive to visual stimuli (Galletti et al. 1993, 1996, 1999) as well as cells sensitive to the direction of gaze (Galletti et al. 1995) and cells showing saccade-related activity (Nakamura et al. 1999; Kutz et al. 2003). Area V6A contains also arm-reaching neurons likely involved in the control of the direction of the arm during movements towards objects in the peripersonal space (Galletti et al. 1997; Fattori et al. 2001). The present results confirm this finding and demonstrate that during the reach-to-grasp the V6A neurons are also modulated by the orientation of the wrist. Experiments were approved by the Bioethical Committee of the University of Bologna and were performed in accordance with National laws on care and use of laboratory animals and with the European Communities Council Directive of 24th November 1986 (86/609/EEC), recently revised by the Council of Europe guidelines (Appendix A of Convention ETS 123). Experiments were performed in two awake Macaca fascicularis. Each monkey was trained to sit in a primate chair with the head restrained to perform reaching and grasping arm movements in complete darkness while gazing a small fixation point. The object to be grasped was a handle that could have different orientation. We recorded neural activity from 163 neurons of the anterior parietal sulcus; 116/163 (71%) neurons were modulated by the reach-to-grasp task during the execution of the forward movements toward the target (epoch MOV), 111/163 (68%) during the pulling of the handle (epoch HOLD) and 102/163 during the execution of backward movements (epoch M2) (t_test, p ≤ 0.05). About the 45% of the tested cells turned out to be sensitive to the orientation of the handle (one way ANOVA, p ≤ 0.05). To study how the distal components of the movement, such as the hand preshaping during the reaching of the handle, could influence the neuronal discharge, we compared the neuronal activity during the reaching movements towards the same spatial location in reach-to-point and reach-to-grasp tasks. Both tasks required proximal arm movements; only the reach-to-grasp task required distal movements to orient the wrist and to shape the hand to grasp the handle. The 56% of V6A cells showed significant differences in the neural discharge (one way ANOVA, p ≤ 0.05) between the reach-to-point and the reach-to-grasp tasks during MOV, 54% during HOLD and 52% during M2. These data show that reaching and grasping are processed by the same population of neurons, providing evidence that the coordination of reaching and grasping takes place much earlier than previously thought, i.e., in the parieto-occipital cortex. The data here reported are in agreement with results of lesions to the medial posterior parietal cortex in both monkeys and humans, and with recent imaging data in humans, all of them indicating a functional coupling in the control of reaching and grasping by the medial parietofrontal circuit.

Fra openness ed embeddedness: network analysis di un distretto industriale glocale.

Il distretto è un luogo relazionale dinamico dove le imprese danno luogo a differenti comportamenti economici di vario genere e natura, cooperando in un certo senso per lo sviluppo e la crescita del distretto stesso. In un primo momento di formazione del distretto si sono delineati comportamenti di tipo path dependent per vantaggi economici dovuti alla distribuzione delle imprese nel territorio, ma con il tempo si sono cominciati ad avere comportamenti espansionistici differenti sia dall'interno che dall'esterno del distretto influendo direttamente sulla struttura del stesso. É ragionevole dunque pensare che gli attori guardino al rapporto “locale/globale” con una sorta di "strabismo", da un lato leggendo il distretto (dall’interno come dall’esterno) come un luogo privilegiato per la formazione di economie di prossimità, dall’altro puntando a disporre le catene produttive nello spazio globale, alla ricerca dei vantaggi derivanti da un minor costo del lavoro o dalla immediata prossimità dei mercati di sbocco. il distretto viene dunque attraversato da dinamiche che lo globalizzano ma, al contempo, ne preservano (almeno per ora) la specificità. Non è più possibile leggere la sua forma economica solo nella logica della embeddedness, e non sarebbe certo corretto farlo solo in chiave di openness. Si tratta dunque di interrogarsi sul rapporto più di integrazione/complementarità che di contrapposizione fra openness ed embeddedness. In questa tesi verrà descritto un metodo d'approccio per dare un valore al fenomeno di Openness e Embeddedness presente nel distretto partendo da un dataset di dati relazionali ricavati da due database economici Amadeus e Aida. Non essendo possibile trovare pubblicamente dati sulle reti di fornitura delle singole aziende, siamo partiti dai dati relazionali di cinque aziende “seme”, ed attraverso una ricerca ricorsiva nelle relazioni di azionariato/partecipazione, siamo riusciti ad ottenere un campione di analisi che ci permette di mettere in luce tramite la custer analysis le principali tipologie di reti di imprese presenti nel distretto ed estese nello spazio globale.