Time valued life cycle greenhouse gas emissions from buildings

The UK has adopted legally binding carbon reduction targets of 34% by 2020 and 80% by 2050 (measured against the 1990 baseline). Buildings are estimated to be responsible for more than 50% of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in the UK. These consist of both operational, produced during use, and embodied, produced during manufacture of materials and components, and during construction, refurbishments and demolition. A brief assessment suggests that it is unlikely that UK emission reduction targets can be met without substantial reductions in both Oc and Ec. Oc occurs over the lifetime of a building whereas the bulk of Ec occurs at the start of a building’s life. A time value for emissions could influence the decision making process when it comes to comparing mitigation measures which have benefits that occur at different times. An example might be the choice between building construction using low Ec construction materials versus building construction using high Ec construction materials but with lower Oc, although the use of high Ec materials does not necessarily imply a lower Oc. Particular time related issues examined here are: the urgency of the need to achieve large emissions reductions during the next 10 to 20 years; the earlier effective action is taken, the less costly it will be; future reduction in carbon intensity of energy supply; the carbon cycle and relationship between the release of GHG’s and their subsequent concentrations in the atmosphere. An equation is proposed, which weights emissions according to when they occur during the building life cycle, and which effectively increases Ec as a proportion of the total, suggesting that reducing Ec is likely to be more beneficial, in terms of climate change, for most new buildings. Thus, giving higher priority to Ec reductions is likely to result in a bigger positive impact on climate change and mitigation costs.

A comparison of greenhouse gas emissions in the residential sector of major Canadian cities

One of the most significant sources of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in Canada is the buildings sector, with over 30% of national energy end-use occurring in buildings. Energy use must be addressed to reduce emissions from the buildings sector, as nearly 70% of all Canada’s energy used in the residential sector comes from fossil sources. An analysis of GHG emissions from the existing residential building stock for the year 2010 has been conducted for six Canadian cities with different climates and development histories: Vancouver, Edmonton, Winnipeg, Toronto, Montreal, and Halifax. Variation across these cities is seen in their 2010 GHG emissions, due to climate, characteristics of the building stock, and energy conversion technologies, with Halifax having the highest per capita emissions at 5.55 tCO2e/capita and Montreal having the lowest at 0.32 tCO2e/capita. The importance of the provincial electricity grid’s carbon intensity is emphasized, along with era of construction, occupancy, floor area, and climate. Approaches to achieving deep emissions reductions include innovative retrofit financing and city level residential energy conservation by-laws; each region should seek location-appropriate measures to reduce energy demand within its residential housing stock, as well as associated GHG emissions.

Cities reducing their greenhouse gas emissions

The study asks how well are cities doing in reducing their greenhouse gas emissions. Data from six cities with repeat GHG emission inventories for the period 2004–2009 is examined: Berlin, Boston, Greater Toronto, London, New York City and Seattle. All of the cities are reducing their per capita GHG emissions, primarily through changes to stationary combustion. On average the cities are reducing per capita emissions by 0.27 t CO2e/capita per year; this is about the same average rate as the cities nation states, although the cities are reducing emissions faster in percentage terms.

CARBON CREDITS AND ENERGY EFFICIENCY

International carbon credit markets are based in differences between developing and developed countries greenhouse gases emissions mitigation costs and technological limits faced by developed countries. Potential of energy efficiency measures to reduce fossil fuel usage in Brazilian industrial segments is assessed, and analysis of such potentials singles out those segments and regions more apt to generate carbon credits through Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) projects. Though there are currently few Brazilian CDM projects, their number may be significantly increased, which is a positive outcome. For this purpose, it is crucial that energy conservation programs estimate how CDM may improve their economic competitiveness.

Optimal Rehabilitation Strategy In Water Distribution Systems Considering Reduction In Greenhouse Gas Emissions

Most of water distribution systems (WDS) need rehabilitation due to aging infrastructure leading to decreasing capacity, increasing leakage and consequently low performance of the WDS. However an appropriate strategy including location and time of pipeline rehabilitation in a WDS with respect to a limited budget is the main challenge which has been addressed frequently by researchers and practitioners. On the other hand, selection of appropriate rehabilitation technique and material types is another main issue which has yet to address properly. The latter can affect the environmental impacts of a rehabilitation strategy meeting the challenges of global warming mitigation and consequent climate change. This paper presents a multi-objective optimization model for rehabilitation strategy in WDS addressing the abovementioned criteria mainly focused on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions either directly from fossil fuel and electricity or indirectly from embodied energy of materials. Thus, the objective functions are to minimise: (1) the total cost of rehabilitation including capital and operational costs; (2) the leakage amount; (3) GHG emissions. The Pareto optimal front containing optimal solutions is determined using Non-dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm NSGA-II. Decision variables in this optimisation problem are classified into a number of groups as: (1) percentage proportion of each rehabilitation technique each year; (2) material types of new pipeline for rehabilitation each year. Rehabilitation techniques used here includes replacement, rehabilitation and lining, cleaning, pipe duplication. The developed model is demonstrated through its application to a Mahalat WDS located in central part of Iran. The rehabilitation strategy is analysed for a 40 year planning horizon. A number of conventional techniques for selecting pipes for rehabilitation are analysed in this study. The results show that the optimal rehabilitation strategy considering GHG emissions is able to successfully save the total expenses, efficiently decrease the leakage amount from the WDS whilst meeting environmental criteria.

Fluxo de gases de efeito estufa na implantação de sistema silvipastoril em pastejo com ovinos

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Mudanças climáticas previstas para o final do século afetam o desempenho e o desenvolvimento esquelético de larvas de tambaqui (Colossoma macropomum)

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES)

Sulla ricerca del minimo dei consumi per vetture sportive

La ricerca oggetto di questa tesi, come si evince dal titolo stesso, è volta alla riduzione dei consumi per vetture a forte carattere sportivo ed elevate prestazioni specifiche. In particolare, tutte le attività descritte fanno riferimento ad un ben definito modello di vettura, ovvero la Maserati Quattroporte. Lo scenario all’interno del quale questo lavoro si inquadra, è quello di una forte spinta alla riduzione dei cosiddetti gas serra, ossia dell’anidride carbonica, in linea con quelle che sono le disposizioni dettate dal protocollo di Kyoto. La necessità di ridurre l’immissione in atmosfera di CO2 sta condizionando tutti i settori della società: dal riscaldamento degli edifici privati a quello degli stabilimenti industriali, dalla generazione di energia ai processi produttivi in senso lato. Nell’ambito di questo panorama, chiaramente, sono chiamati ad uno sforzo considerevole i costruttori di automobili, alle quali è imputata una percentuale considerevole dell’anidride carbonica prodotta ogni giorno e riversata nell’atmosfera. Al delicato problema inquinamento ne va aggiunto uno forse ancor più contingente e diretto, legato a ragioni di carattere economico. I combustibili fossili, come tutti sanno, sono una fonte di energia non rinnovabile, la cui disponibilità è legata a giacimenti situati in opportune zone del pianeta e non inesauribili. Per di più, la situazione socio politica che il medio oriente sta affrontando, unita alla crescente domanda da parte di quei paesi in cui il processo di industrializzazione è partito da poco a ritmi vertiginosi, hanno letteralmente fatto lievitare il prezzo del petrolio. A causa di ciò, avere una vettura efficiente in senso lato e, quindi, a ridotti consumi, è a tutti gli effetti un contenuto di prodotto apprezzato dal punto di vista del marketing, anche per i segmenti vettura più alti. Nell’ambito di questa ricerca il problema dei consumi è stato affrontato come una conseguenza del comportamento globale della vettura in termini di efficienza, valutando il miglior compromesso fra le diverse aree funzionali costituenti il veicolo. Una parte consistente del lavoro è stata dedicata alla messa a punto di un modello di calcolo, attraverso il quale eseguire una serie di analisi di sensibilità sull’influenza dei diversi parametri vettura sul consumo complessivo di carburante. Sulla base di tali indicazioni, è stata proposta una modifica dei rapporti del cambio elettro-attuato con lo scopo di ottimizzare il compromesso tra consumi e prestazioni, senza inficiare considerevolmente queste ultime. La soluzione proposta è stata effettivamente realizzata e provata su vettura, dando la possibilità di verificare i risultati ed operare un’approfondita attività di correlazione del modello di calcolo per i consumi. Il beneficio ottenuto in termini di autonomia è stato decisamente significativo con riferimento sia ai cicli di omologazione europei, che a quelli statunitensi. Sono state inoltre analizzate le ripercussioni dal punto di vista delle prestazioni ed anche in questo caso i numerosi dati rilevati hanno permesso di migliorare il livello di correlazione del modello di simulazione per le prestazioni. La vettura con la nuova rapportatura proposta è stata poi confrontata con un prototipo di Maserati Quattroporte avente cambio automatico e convertitore di coppia. Questa ulteriore attività ha permesso di valutare il differente comportamento tra le due soluzioni, sia in termini di consumo istantaneo, che di consumo complessivo rilevato durante le principali missioni su banco a rulli previste dalle normative. L’ultima sezione del lavoro è stata dedicata alla valutazione dell’efficienza energetica del sistema vettura, intesa come resistenza all’avanzamento incontrata durante il moto ad una determinata velocità. Sono state indagate sperimentalmente le curve di “coast down” della Quattroporte e di alcune concorrenti e sono stati proposti degli interventi volti alla riduzione del coefficiente di penetrazione aerodinamica, pur con il vincolo di non alterare lo stile vettura.

Development of analytical methodologies for iodine species in gaseous and particulate phases of the coastal atmosphere

It has been demonstrated that iodine does have an important influence on atmospheric chemistry, especially the formation of new particles and the enrichment of iodine in marine aerosols. It was pointed out that the most probable chemical species involved in the production or growth of these particles are iodine oxides, produced photochemically from biogenic halocarbon emissions and/or iodine emission from the sea surface. However, the iodine chemistry from gaseous to particulate phase in the coastal atmosphere and the chemical nature of the condensing iodine species are still not understood. A Tenax / Carbotrap adsorption sampling technique and a thermo-desorption / cryo-trap / GC-MS system has been further developed and improved for the volatile organic iodine species in the gas phase. Several iodo-hydrocarbons such as CH3I, C2H5I, CH2ICl, CH2IBr and CH2I2 etc., have been measured in samples from a calibration test gas source (standards), real air samples and samples from seaweeds / macro-algae emission experiments. A denuder sampling technique has been developed to characterise potential precursor compounds of coastal particle formation processes, such as molecular iodine in the gas phase. Starch, TMAH (TetraMethylAmmonium Hydroxide) and TBAH (TetraButylAmmonium Hydroxide) coated denuders were tested for their efficiencies to collect I2 at the inner surface, followed by a TMAH extraction and ICP/MS determination, adding tellurium as an internal standard. The developed method has been proved to be an effective, accurate and suitable process for I2 measurement in the field, with the estimated detection limit of ~0.10 ng∙L-1 for a sampling volume of 15 L. An H2O/TMAH-Extraction-ICP/MS method has been developed for the accurate and sensitive determination of iodine species in tropospheric aerosol particles. The particle samples were collected on cellulose-nitrate filters using conventional filter holders or on cellulose nitrate/tedlar-foils using a 5-stage Berner impactor for size-segregated particle analysis. The water soluble species as IO3- and I- were separated by anion exchanging process after water extraction. Non-water soluble species including iodine oxide and organic iodine were digested and extracted by TMAH. Afterwards the triple samples were analysed by ICP/MS. The detection limit for particulate iodine was determined to be 0.10~0.20 ng•m-3 for sampling volumes of 40~100 m3. The developed methods have been used in two field measurements in May 2002 and September 2003, at and around the Mace Head Atmospheric Research Station (MHARS) located at the west coast of Ireland. Elemental iodine as a precursor of the iodine chemistry in the coastal atmosphere, was determined in the gas phase at a seaweed hot-spot around the MHARS, showing I2 concentrations were in the range of 0~1.6 ng∙L-1 and indicating a positive correlation with the ozone concentration. A seaweed-chamber experiment performed at the field measurement station showed that the I2 emission rate from macro-algae was in the range of 0.019~0.022 ng•min-1•kg-1. During these experiments, nanometer-particle concentrations were obtained from the Scanning Mobility Particle Sizer (SMPS) measurements. Particle number concentrations were found to have a linear correlation with elemental iodine in the gas phase of the seaweeds chamber, showing that gaseous I2 is one of the important precursors of the new particle formation in the coastal atmosphere. Iodine contents in the particle phase were measured in both field campaigns at and around the field measurement station. Total iodine concentrations were found to be in the range of 1.0 ~ 21.0 ng∙m-3 in the PM2.5 samples. A significant correlation between the total iodine concentrations and the nanometer-particle number concentrations was observed. The particulate iodine species analysis indicated that iodide contents are usually higher than those of iodate in all samples, with ratios in the range of 2~5:1. It is possible that those water soluble iodine species are transferred through the sea-air interface into the particle phase. The ratio of water soluble (iodate + iodide) and non-water soluble species (probably iodine oxide and organic iodine compounds) was observed to be in the range of 1:1 to 1:2. It appears that higher concentrated non-water soluble species, as the products of the photolysis from the gas phase into the particle phase, can be obtained in those samples while the nucleation events occur. That supports the idea that iodine chemistry in the coastal boundary layer is linked with new particle formation events. Furthermore, artificial aerosol particles were formed from gaseous iodine sources (e.g. CH2I2) using a laboratory reaction-chamber experiment, in which the reaction constant of the CH2I2 photolysis was calculated to be based upon the first order reaction kinetic. The end products of iodine chemistry in the particle phase were identified and quantified.

Investigating the effect of construction management strategies on project greenhouse gas emissions using interactive simulation

The challenges posed by global climate change are motivating the investigation of strategies that can reduce the life cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of products and processes. While new construction materials and technologies have received significant attention, there has been limited emphasis on understanding how construction processes can be best managed to reduce GHG emissions. Unexpected disruptive events tend to adversely impact construction costs and delay project completion. They also tend to increase project GHG emissions. The objective of this paper is to investigate ways in which project GHG emissions can be reduced by appropriate management of disruptive events. First, an empirical analysis of construction data from a specific highway construction project is used to illustrate the impact of unexpected schedule delays in increasing project GHG emissions. Next, a simulation based methodology is described to assess the effectiveness of alternative project management strategies in reducing GHG emissions. The contribution of this paper is that it explicitly considers projects emissions, in addition to cost and project duration, in developing project management strategies. Practical application of the method discussed in this paper will help construction firms reduce their project emissions through strategic project management, and without significant investment in new technology. In effect, this paper lays the foundation for best practices in construction management that will optimize project cost and duration, while minimizing GHG emissions.

Evaluación de los co-beneficios sobre el desarrollo sostenible y la reducción de la pobreza de proyectos de mitigación del cambio climático en Brasil

El cambio climático y los diferentes aspectos del concepto de “desarrollo” están intrínsecamente interconectados. Por un lado, el desarrollo económico de nuestras sociedades ha contribuido a un aumento insostenible de las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero, las cuales están desestabilizando el sistema climático global, generando al mismo tiempo una distribución desigual de la capacidad de las personas para hacer frente a estos cambios. Por otro lado, en la actualidad existe un amplio consenso sobre que el cambio climático impacta directamente y de manera negativa sobre el denominando desarrollo sostenible. De igual manera, cada vez existe un mayor consenso de que el cambio climático va a desafiar sustancialmente nuestra capacidad de erradicar la pobreza a medio y largo plazo. Ante esta realidad, no cabe duda de que las estrategias de adaptación son esenciales para mantener el desarrollo. Es por esto que hasta el momento, los mayores esfuerzos realizados por unir las agendas globales de la lucha contra la pobreza y del cambio climático se han dado en el entorno de la adaptación al cambio climático. Sin embargo, cada vez son más los actores que defienden, desde distintos escenarios, que existen sinergias entre la mitigación de emisiones y la mejora de las condiciones de vida de las poblaciones más vulnerables, favoreciendo así un “desarrollo sostenible” sin disminuir los recursos financieros destinados a la adaptación. Para hacer efectivo este potencial, es imprescindible identificar diseños de estrategias de mitigación que incrementen los resultados de desarrollo, contribuyendo al desarrollo sostenible al mismo tiempo que a reducir la pobreza. En este contexto se sitúa el objetivo principal de esta investigación, consistente en analizar los co-beneficios locales, para el desarrollo sostenible y la reducción la pobreza, de proyectos de mitigación del cambio climático que se implementan en Brasil. Por co-beneficios se entienden, en el lenguaje de las discusiones internacionales de cambio climático, aquellos beneficios que van más allá de la reducción de emisiones de Gases de Efecto Invernadero (GEI) intrínsecas por definición a los proyectos de mitigación. Los proyectos de mitigación más relevantes hasta el momento bajo el paraguas de la Convención Marco de las Naciones Unidas para el Cambio Climático (CMNUCC), son los denominados Mecanismos de Desarrollo Limpio (MDL) del Protocolo de Kioto. Sin embargo, existen alternativas de proyectos de mitigación (tales como los denominados “estándares adicionales” a los MDL de los Mercados Voluntarios de Carbono y las Tecnologías Sociales), que también serán tenidos en cuenta en el marco de este estudio. La elección del tema se justifica por la relevancia del mismo en un momento histórico en el que se está decidiendo el futuro del régimen climático a partir del año 2020. Aunque en el momento de redactar este documento, todavía no se ha acordado la forma que tendrán los futuros instrumentos de mitigación, sí que se sabe que los co-beneficios de estos instrumentos serán tan importantes, o incluso más, que las reducciones de GEI que generan. Esto se debe, principalmente, a las presiones realizadas en las negociaciones climáticas por parte de los países menos desarrollados, para los cuales el mayor incentivo de formar parte de dichas negociaciones se basa principalmente en estos potenciales co-beneficios. Los resultados de la tesis se estructuran alrededor de tres preguntas de investigación: ¿cómo están contribuyendo los MDL implementados en Brasil a generar co-beneficios que fomenten el desarrollo sostenible y reduzcan la pobreza?; ¿existen proyectos de mitigación en Brasil que por tener compromisos más exigentes en cuanto a su contribución al desarrollo sostenible y/o la reducción de la pobreza que los MDL estén siendo más eficientes que estos en relación a los co-beneficios que generan?; y ¿qué características de los proyectos de mitigación pueden resultar críticas para potenciar sus co-beneficios en las comunidades en las que se implementan? Para dar respuesta a estas preguntas, se ha desarrollado durante cuatro años una labor de investigación estructurada en varias fases y en la que se combinan diversas metodologías, que abarcan desde el desarrollo de un modelo de análisis de cobeneficios, hasta la aplicación del mismo tanto a nivel documental sobre 194 documentos de diseño de proyecto (denominado análisis ex-ante), como a través de 20 casos de estudio (denominado análisis ex-post). Con la realización de esta investigación, se ha confirmado que los requisitos existentes hasta el momento para registrar un proyecto como MDL bajo la CMNUCC no favorecen sustancialmente la generación de co-beneficios locales para las comunidades en las que se implementan. Adicionalmente, se han identificado prácticas y factores, que vinculadas a las actividades intrínsecas de los proyectos de mitigación, son efectivas para incrementar sus co-beneficios. Estas prácticas y factores podrán ser tenidas en cuenta tanto para mejorar los requisitos de los actuales proyectos MDL, como para apoyar la definición de los nuevos instrumentos climáticos. ABSTRACT Climate change and development are inextricably linked. On the one hand, the economic development of our societies has contributed to the unsustainable increase of Green House Gases emissions, which are destabilizing the global climate system while fostering an unequal distribution of people´s ability to cope with these changes. On the other hand, there is now a consensus that climate change directly impacts the so-called sustainable development. Likely, there is a growing agreement that climate change will substantially threaten our capacity to eradicate poverty in the medium and long term. Given this reality, there is no doubt that adaptation strategies are essentials to keep development. This is why, to date, much of the focus on poverty in the context of climate change has been on adaptation However, without diverting resources from adaptation, there may exist the potential to synergize efforts to mitigate emissions, contribute to sustainable development and reduce poverty. To fulfil this potential, it is key identifying how mitigation strategies can also support sustainable development and reduce poverty. In this context, the main purpose of this investigation is to explore the co-benefits, for sustainable development and for poverty reduction, of climate change mitigation projects being implemented in Brazil. In recent years the term co-benefits, has been used by policy makers and academics to refer the potentially large and diverse range of collateral benefits that can be associated with climate change mitigation policies in addition to the direct avoided climate impact benefits. The most relevant mitigation projects developed during the last years under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) are the so-called Clean Development Mechanisms (CDM) of the Kyoto Protocol. Thus, this research will analyse this official mechanism. However, there are alternatives to the mitigation projects (such as the "add-on standards" of the Voluntary Carbon Markets, and the Social Technologies) that will also be assessed as part of the research. The selection of this research theme is justified because its relevance in a historic moment in which proposals for a future climate regime after 2020 are being negotiated. Although at the moment of writing this document, there is not a common understanding on the shape of the new mitigation instruments, there is a great agreement about the importance of the co-benefits of such instruments, which may be even more important for the Least Developed Countries that their expected greenhouse gases emissions reductions. The results of the thesis are structured around three research questions: how are the CDM projects being implemented in Brazil generating local co-benefits that foster sustainable development and poverty reduction?; are other mitigation projects in Brazil that due to their more stringent sustainable development and/o poverty reduction criteria, any more successful at delivering co-benefits than regular CDM projects?; and what are the distinguishing characteristics of mitigation projects that are successful at delivering co-benefits? To answer these research questions, during four years it has been developed a research work structured in several phases and combining various methodologies. Those methodologies cover from the development of a co-benefits assessment model, to the application of such model both to a desktop analysis of 194 project design documents, and to 20 case studies using field data based on site visits to the project sites. With the completion of this research, it has been confirmed that current requirements to register a CDM project under the UNFCCC not substantially favour co-benefits at the local level. In addition, some practices and factors enablers of co-benefits have been identified. These characteristics may be taken into consideration to improve the current CDM and to support the definition of the new international market mechanisms for climate mitigation.

Global research alliance modelling platform (GRAMP): an open web platform for modelling greenhouse gas emissions from agro-ecosystems

Carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) process-based models are important tools for estimating and reporting greenhouse gas emissions and changes in soil C stocks. There is a need for continuous evaluation, development and adaptation of these models to improve scientific understanding, national inventories and assessment of mitigation options across the world. To date, much of the information needed to describe different processes like transpiration, photosynthesis, plant growth and maintenance, above and below ground carbon dynamics, decomposition and nitrogen mineralization. In ecosystem models remains inaccessible to the wider community, being stored within model computer source code, or held internally by modelling teams. Here we describe the Global Research Alliance Modelling Platform (GRAMP), a web-based modelling platform to link researchers with appropriate datasets, models and training material. It will provide access to model source code and an interactive platform for researchers to form a consensus on existing methods, and to synthesize new ideas, which will help to advance progress in this area. The platform will eventually support a variety of models, but to trial the platform and test the architecture and functionality, it was piloted with variants of the DNDC model. The intention is to form a worldwide collaborative network (a virtual laboratory) via an interactive website with access to models and best practice guidelines; appropriate datasets for testing, calibrating and evaluating models; on-line tutorials and links to modelling and data provider research groups, and their associated publications. A graphical user interface has been designed to view the model development tree and access all of the above functions.

High-resolution spatial modelling of greenhouse gas emissions from land-use change to energy crops in the United Kingdom

Funded by Energy Technologies Institute EPSRC-Supergen. Grant Number: EP/M013200/1

Keeping Mars warm with new super greenhouse gases

Our selection of new super greenhouse gases to fill a putative “window” in a future Martian atmosphere relies on quantum-mechanical calculations. Our study indicates that if Mars could somehow acquire an Earth-like atmospheric composition and surface pressure, then an Earth-like temperature could be sustained by a mixture of five to seven fluorine compounds. Martian mining requirements for replenishing the fluorine could be comparable to current terrestrial extraction.

1990 ozone precursors emissions inventory for the Chicago area /

"October, 1992."