Timing and distribution of protein ingestion during prolonged recovery from resistance exercise alters myofibrillar protein synthesis

Quantity and timing of protein ingestion are major factors regulating myofibrillar protein synthesis (MPS). However, the effect of specific ingestion patterns on MPS throughout a 12 h period is unknown. We determined how different distributions of protein feeding during 12 h recovery after resistance exercise affects anabolic responses in skeletal muscle. Twenty-four healthy trained males were assigned to three groups (n = 8/group) and undertook a bout of resistance exercise followed by ingestion of 80 g of whey protein throughout 12 h recovery in one of the following protocols: 8 × 10 g every 1.5 h (PULSE); 4 × 20 g every 3 h (intermediate: INT); or 2 × 40 g every 6 h (BOLUS). Muscle biopsies were obtained at rest and after 1, 4, 6, 7 and 12 h post exercise. Resting and post-exercise MPS (l-[ring-(13)C6] phenylalanine), and muscle mRNA abundance and cell signalling were assessed. All ingestion protocols increased MPS above rest throughout 1-12 h recovery (88-148%, P < 0.02), but INT elicited greater MPS than PULSE and BOLUS (31-48%, P < 0.02). In general signalling showed a BOLUS>INT>PULSE hierarchy in magnitude of phosphorylation. MuRF-1 and SLC38A2 mRNA were differentially expressed with BOLUS. In conclusion, 20 g of whey protein consumed every 3 h was superior to either PULSE or BOLUS feeding patterns for stimulating MPS throughout the day. This study provides novel information on the effect of modulating the distribution of protein intake on anabolic responses in skeletal muscle and has the potential to maximize outcomes of resistance training for attaining peak muscle mass.

Daytime pattern of post-exercise protein intake affects whole-body protein turnover in resistance-trained males

Background The pattern of protein intake following exercise may impact whole-body protein turnover and net protein retention. We determined the effects of different protein feeding strategies on protein metabolism in resistance-trained young men. Methods: Participants were randomly assigned to ingest either 80g of whey protein as 8x10g every 1.5h (PULSE; n=8), 4x20g every 3h (intermediate, INT; n=7), or 2x40g every 6h (BOLUS; n=8) after an acute bout of bilateral knee extension exercise (4x10 repetitions at 80% maximal strength). Whole-body protein turnover (Q), synthesis (S), breakdown (B), and net balance (NB) were measured throughout 12h of recovery by a bolus ingestion of [ 15N]glycine with urinary [15N]ammonia enrichment as the collected end-product. Results PULSE Q rates were greater than BOLUS (?19%, P<0.05) with a trend towards being greater than INT (?9%, P=0.08). Rates of S were 32% and 19% greater and rates of B were 51% and 57% greater for PULSE as compared to INT and BOLUS, respectively (P<0.05), with no difference between INT and BOLUS. There were no statistical differences in NB between groups (P=0.23); however, magnitude-based inferential statistics revealed likely small (mean effect90%CI; 0.590.87) and moderate (0.800.91) increases in NB for PULSE and INT compared to BOLUS and possible small increase (0.421.00) for INT vs. PULSE. Conclusion We conclude that the pattern of ingested protein, and not only the total daily amount, can impact whole-body protein metabolism. Individuals aiming to maximize NB would likely benefit from repeated ingestion of moderate amounts of protein (?20g) at regular intervals (?3h) throughout the day.

Preexercise aminoacidemia and muscle protein synthesis after resistance exercise

PURPOSE We have previously shown that the aminoacidemia caused by the consumption of a rapidly digested protein after resistance exercise enhances muscle protein synthesis (MPS) more than the amino acid (AA) profile associated with a slowly digested protein. Here, we investigated whether differential feeding patterns of a whey protein mixture commencing before exercise affect postexercise intracellular signaling and MPS. METHODS Twelve resistance-trained males performed leg resistance exercise 45 min after commencing each of three volume-matched nutrition protocols: placebo (PLAC, artificially sweetened water), BOLUS (25 g of whey protein + 5 g of leucine dissolved in artificially sweetened water; 1× 500 mL), or PULSE (15× 33-mL aliquots of BOLUS drink every 15 min). RESULTS The preexercise rise in plasma AA concentration with PULSE was attenuated compared with BOLUS (P < 0.05); this effect was reversed after exercise, with two-fold greater leucine concentrations in PULSE compared with BOLUS (P < 0.05). One-hour postexercise, phosphorylation of p70 S6K and rpS6 was increased above baseline with BOLUS and PULSE, but not PLAC (P < 0.05); furthermore, PULSE > BOLUS (P < 0.05). MPS throughout 5 h of recovery was higher with protein ingestion compared with PLAC (0.037 ± 0.007), with no differences between BOLUS or PULSE (0.085 ± 0.013 vs. 0.095 ± 0.010%•h, respectively, P = 0.56). CONCLUSIONS Manipulation of aminoacidemia before resistance exercise via different patterns of intake of protein altered plasma AA profiles and postexercise intracellular signaling. However, there was no difference in the enhancement of the muscle protein synthetic response after exercise. Protein sources producing a slow AA release, when consumed before resistance exercise in sufficient amounts, are as effective as rapidly digested proteins in promoting postexercise MPS.

Low muscle glycogen concentration does not suppress the anabolic response to resistance exercise

We determined the effect of muscle glycogen concentration and postexercise nutrition on anabolic signaling and rates of myofibrillar protein synthesis after resistance exercise (REX). Sixteen young, healthy men matched for age, body mass, peak oxygen uptake (VO2peak) and strength (one repetition maximum; 1RM) were randomly assigned to either a nutrient or placebo group. After 48 h diet and exercise control, subjects undertook a glycogen-depletion protocol consisting of one-leg cycling to fatigue (LOW), whereas the other leg rested (NORM). The next morning following an overnight fast, a primed, constant infusion of L-[ring-13C6] phenylalanine was commenced and subjects completed 8 sets of 5 unilateral leg press repetitions at 80% 1RM. Immediately after REX and 2 h later, subjects consumed a 500 ml bolus of a protein/CHO (20 g whey + 40 g maltodextrin) or placebo beverage. Muscle biopsies from the vastus lateralis of both legs were taken at rest and 1 and 4 h after REX. Muscle glycogen concentration was higher in the NORM than LOW at all time points in both nutrient and placebo groups (P < 0.05). Postexercise Akt-p70S6K-rpS6 phosphorylation increased in both groups with no differences between legs (P < 0.05). mTORSer2448 phosphorylation in placebo increased 1 h after exercise in NORM (P < 0.05), whereas mTOR increased ?4-fold in LOW (P < 0.01) and ?11 fold in NORM with nutrient (P < 0.01; different between legs P < 0.05). Post-exercise rates of MPS were not different between NORM and LOW in nutrient (0.070 ± 0.022 vs. 0.068 ± 0.018 %/h) or placebo (0.045 ± 0.021 vs. 0.049 ± 0.017 %/h). We conclude that commencing high-intensity REX with low muscle glycogen availability does not compromise the anabolic signal and subsequent rates of MPS, at least during the early (4 h) postexercise recovery period.

Sex-based comparisons of myofibrillar protein synthesis after resistance exercise in the fed state

Sex-based comparisons of myofibrillar protein synthesis after resistance exercise in the fed state. J Appl Physiol 112: 1805-1813, 2012. First published March 1, 2012; doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00170.2012.- We made sex-based comparisons of rates of myofibrillar protein synthesis (MPS) and anabolic signaling after a single bout of high-intensity resistance exercise. Eight men (20 ± 10 yr, BMI = 24.3 ± 2.4) and eight women (22 ± 1.8 yr, BMI = 23.0 ± 1.9) underwent primed constant infusions of L-[ring-13C6]phenylalanine on consecutive days with serial muscle biopsies. Biopsies were taken from the vastus lateralis at rest and 1, 3, 5, 24, 26, and 28 h after exercise. Twenty-five grams of whey protein was ingested immediately and 26 h after exercise. We also measured exercise-induced serum testosterone because it is purported to contribute to increases in myofibrillar protein synthesis (MPS) postexercise and its absence has been hypothesized to attenuate adaptative responses to resistance exercise in women. The exercise-induced area under the testosterone curve was 45-fold greater in men than women in the early (1 h) recovery period following exercise (P < 0.001). MPS was elevated similarly in men and women (2.3- and 2.7-fold, respectively) 1-5 h postexercise and after protein ingestion following 24 h recovery. Phosphorylation of mTORSer2448 was elevated to a greater extent in men than women acutely after exercise (P = 0.003), whereas increased phosphorylation of p70S6K1Thr389 was not different between sexes. Androgen receptor content was greater in men (main effect for sex, P = 0.049). Atrogin-1 mRNA abundance was decreased after 5 h recovery in both men and women (P < 0.001), and MuRF-1 expression was elevated in men after protein ingestion following 24 h recovery (P = 0.003). These results demonstrate minor sex-based differences in signaling responses and no difference in the MPS response to resistance exercise in the fed state. Interestingly, our data demonstrate that exerciseinduced increases in MPS are dissociated from postexercise testosteronemia and that stimulation of MPS occurs effectively with low systemic testosterone concentrations in women.

Rapid aminoacidemia enhances myofibrillar protein synthesis and anabolic intramuscular signaling responses after resistance exercise

Background: Ingestion of whey or casein yields divergent patterns of aminoacidemia that influence whole-body and skeletal muscle myofibrillar protein synthesis (MPS) after exercise. Direct comparisons of the effects of contrasting absorption rates exhibited by these proteins are confounded by their differing amino acid contents. Objective: Our objective was to determine the effect of divergent aminoacidemia by manipulating ingestion patterns of whey protein alone on MPS and anabolic signaling after resistance exercise. Design: In separate trials, 8 healthy men consumed whey protein either as a single bolus (BOLUS; 25-g dose) or as repeated, small, "pulsed" drinks (PULSE; ten 2.5-g drinks every 20 min) to mimic a more slowly digested protein. MPS and phosphorylation of signaling proteins involved in protein synthesis were measured at rest and after resistance exercise. Results: BOLUS increased blood essential amino acid (EAA) concentrations above those of PULSE (162% compared with 53%, P < 0.001) 60 min after exercise, whereas PULSE resulted in a smaller but sustained increase in aminoacidemia that remained elevated above BOLUS amounts later (180-220 min after exercise, P < 0.05). Despite an identical net area under the EAA curve, MPS was elevated to a greater extent after BOLUS than after PULSE early (1-3 h: 95% compared with 42%) and later (3-5 h: 193% compared with 121%) (both P < 0.05). There were greater changes in the phosphorylation of the Akt-mammalian target of rapamycin pathway after BOLUS than after PULSE. Conclusions: Rapid aminoacidemia in the postexercise period enhances MPS and anabolic signaling to a greater extent than an identical amount of protein fed in small pulses that mimic a more slowly digested protein. A pronounced peak aminoacidemia after exercise enhances protein synthesis.

Early time course of Akt phosphorylation after endurance and resistance exercise

Purpose The aim of this study was to determine the early time course of exercise-induced signaling after divergent contractile activity associated with resistance and endurance exercise. Methods Sixteen male subjects were randomly assigned to either a cycling (CYC; n = 8, 60 min, 70% V?O2peak) or resistance (REX; n = 8, 8×5 leg extension, 80% one-repetition maximum, 3-min recovery) exercise group. Serial muscle biopsies were obtained from vastus lateralis at rest before, immediately after, and after 15, 30, and 60 min of passive recovery to determine early signaling responses after exercise. Results There were comparable increases from rest in AktThr308/Ser473 and mTORSer2448 phosphorylation during the postexercise time course that peaked 30-60 min after both CYC and REX (P<0.05). There were also similar patterns in p70S6K Thr389 and 4E-BP1Thr37/46 phosphorylation, but a greater magnitude of effect was observed for REX and CYC, respectively (P<0.05). However, AMPKThr172 phosphorylation was only significantly elevated after CYC (P<0.05), and we observed divergent responses for glycogen synthaseSer641 and AS160 phosphorylation that were enhanced after CYC but not REX (P<0.05). Conclusions We show a similar time course for Akt-mTOR-S6K phosphorylation during the initial 60-min recovery period after divergent contractile stimuli. Conversely, enhanced phosphorylation status of proteins that promote glucose transport and glycogen synthesis only occurred after endurance exercise. Our results indicate that endurance and resistance exercise initiate translational signaling, but high-load, low-repetition contractile activity failed to promote phosphorylation of pathways regulating glucose metabolism.

Effect of consecutive repeated sprint and resistance exercise bouts on acute adaptive responses in human skeletal muscle

We examined acute molecular responses in skeletal muscle to repeated sprint and resistance exercise bouts. Six men [age, 24.7 ± 6.3 yr; body mass, 81.6 ± 7.3 kg; peak oxygen uptake, 47 ± 9.9 ml·kg -1 ·min -1; one repetition maximum (1-RM) leg extension 92.2 ± 12.5 kg; means ± SD] were randomly assigned to trials consisting of either resistance exercise (8 × 5 leg extension, 80% 1-RM) followed by repeated sprints (10 × 6 s, 0.75 N·m torque·kg -1) or vice-versa. Muscle biopsies from vastus lateralis were obtained at rest, 15 min after each exercise bout, and following 3-h recovery to determine early signaling and mRNA responses. There was divergent exercise order-dependent phosphorylation of p70 S6K (S6K). Specifically, initial resistance exercise increased S6K phosphorylation (?75% P < 0.05), but there was no effect when resistance exercise was undertaken after sprints. Exercise decreased IGF-I mRNA following 3-h recovery (?50%, P = 0.06) independent of order, while muscle RING finger mRNA was elevated with a moderate exercise order effect (P < 0.01). When resistance exercise was followed by repeated sprints PGC-1? mRNA was increased (REX1-SPR2; P = 0.02) with a modest distinction between exercise orders. Repeated sprints may promote acute interference on resistance exercise responses by attenuating translation initiation signaling and exacerbating ubiquitin ligase expression. Indeed, repeated sprints appear to generate the overriding acute exercise-induced response when undertaking concurrent repeated sprint and resistance exercise. Accordingly, we suggest that sprint-activities are isolated from resistance training and that adequate recovery time is considered within periodized training plans that incorporate these divergent exercise modes.

Effect of high-frequency resistance exercise on adaptive responses in skeletal muscle

PURPOSE: Regulation of skeletal muscle mass is highly dependent on contractile loading. The purpose of this study was to examine changes in growth factor and inflammatory pathways following high-frequency resistance training. METHODS: Using a novel design in which male Sprague-Dawley rats undertook a "stacked" resistance training protocol designed to generate a summation of transient exercise-induced signaling responses (four bouts of three sets × 10 repetitions of squat exercise, separated by 3 h of recovery), we determined the effects of high training frequency on signaling pathways and transcriptional activity regulating muscle mass. RESULTS: The stacked training regimen resulted in acute suppression of insulin-like growth factor 1 mRNA abundance (P < 0.05) and Akt phosphorylation (P < 0.05), an effect that persisted 48 h after the final training bout. Conversely, stacked training elicited a coordinated increase in the expression of tumor necrosis factor alpha, inhibitor kappa B kinase alpha/beta activity (P < 0.05), and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase phosphorylation (P < 0.05) at 3 h after each training bout. In addition, the stacked series of resistance exercise bouts induced an increase in p70 S6 kinase phosphorylation 3 h after bouts ×3 and ×4, independent of the phosphorylation state of Akt. CONCLUSIONS: Our results indicate that high resistance training frequency extends the transient activation of inflammatory signaling cascades, concomitant with persistent suppression of key mediators of anabolic responses. We provide novel insights into the effects of the timing of exercise-induced overload and recovery on signal transduction pathways and transcriptional activity regulating skeletal muscle mass in vivo.

Traits of fear resistance and susceptibility in an advanced intercross line

Genetic variability in the strength and precision of fear memory is hypothesised to contribute to the etiology of anxiety disorders, including post-traumatic stress disorder. We generated fear-susceptible (F-S) or fear-resistant (F-R) phenotypes from an F8 advanced intercross line (AIL) of C57BL/6J and DBA/2J inbred mice by selective breeding. We identified specific traits underlying individual variability in Pavlovian conditioned fear learning and memory. Offspring of selected lines differed in the acquisition of conditioned fear. Furthermore, F-S mice showed greater cued fear memory and generalised fear in response to a novel context than F-R mice. F-S mice showed greater basal corticosterone levels and hypothalamic corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH) mRNA levels than F-R mice, consistent with higher hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis drive. Hypothalamic mineralocorticoid receptor and CRH receptor 1 mRNA levels were decreased in F-S mice as compared with F-R mice. Manganese-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (MEMRI) was used to investigate basal levels of brain activity. MEMRI identified a pattern of increased brain activity in F-S mice that was driven primarily by the hippocampus and amygdala, indicating excessive limbic circuit activity in F-S mice as compared with F-R mice. Thus, selection pressure applied to the AIL population leads to the accumulation of heritable trait-relevant characteristics within each line, whereas non-behaviorally relevant traits remain distributed. Selected lines therefore minimise false-positive associations between behavioral phenotypes and physiology. We demonstrate that intrinsic differences in HPA axis function and limbic excitability contribute to phenotypic differences in the acquisition and consolidation of associative fear memory. Identification of system-wide traits predisposing to variability in fear memory may help in the direction of more targeted and efficacious treatments for fear-related pathology. Through short-term selection in a B6D2 advanced intercross line we created mouse populations divergent for the retention of Pavlovian fear memory. Trait distinctions in HPA-axis drive and fear network circuitry could be made between naïve animals in the two lines. These data demonstrate underlying physiological and neurological differences between Fear-Susceptible and Fear-Resistant animals in a natural population. F-S and F-R mice may therefore be relevant to a spectrum of disorders including depression, anxiety disorders and PTSD for which altered fear processing occurs.

Aqueous phase synthesis of copper nanoparticles : a link between heavy metal resistance and nanoparticle synthesis ability in bacterial systems

We demonstrate aqueous phase biosynthesis of phase-pure metallic copper nanoparticles (CuNPs) using a silver resistant bacterium Morganella morganii. This is particularly important considering that there has been no report that demonstrates biosynthesis and stabilization of pure copper nanoparticles in the aqueous phase. Electrochemical analysis of bacterial cells exposed to Cu2+ ions provides new insights into the mechanistic aspect of Cu2+ ion reduction within the bacterial cell and indicates a strong link between the silver and copper resistance machinery of bacteria in the context of metal ion reduction. The outcomes of this study take us a step closer towards designing rational strategies for biosynthesis of different metal nanoparticles using microorganisms.

The role of epigenetics in resistance to cisplatin chemotherapy in lung cancer

Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is the most common cause of cancer related death in the world. Cisplatin and carboplatin are the most commonly used cytotoxic chemotherapeutic agents to treat the disease. These agents, usually combined with drugs such as gemcitabine or pemetrexed, induce objective tumor responses in only 20-30% of patients. Aberrant epigenetic regulation of gene expression is a frequent event in NSCLC. In this article we review the emerging evidence that epigenetics and the cellular machinery involved with this type of regulation may be key elements in the development of cisplatin resistance in NSCLC. © 2011 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.

Resistance is feral : digital culture, community arts, and the new cultural gatekeepers

The Community Arts sector in Australia has a history of resistance. It has challenged hegemonic culture through facilitating grassroots creative production, contesting notions of artistic processes, and the role of the artist in society. This paper examines this penchant for resistance through the lens of contemporary digital culture, to establish that the sector is continuing to challenge dominant forms of cultural control. It then proposes that this enthusiasm and activity lacks ethical direction, describing it as feral to encompass the potential of current practices, while highlighting how a level of taming is needed in order to develop ethical approaches.

An extracellular signal-regulated kinase 2 survival pathway mediates resistance of human mesothelioma cells to asbestos-induced injury

We hypothesized that normal human mesothelial cells acquire resistance to asbestos-induced toxicity via induction of one or more epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) - linked survival pathways (phosphoinositol-3-kinase/AKT/ mammalian target of rapamycin and extracellular signal - regulated kinase [ERK] 1/2) during simian virus 40 (SV40) transformation and carcinogenesis. Both isolated HKNM-2 mesothelial cells and a telomerase-immortalized mesothelial line (LP9/TERT-1) were more sensitive to crocidolite asbestos toxicity than an SV40 Tag-immortalized mesothelial line (MET5A) and malignant mesothelioma cell lines (HMESO and PPM Mill). Whereas increases in phosphorylation of AKT (pAKT) were observed in MET5A cells in response to asbestos, LP9/TERT-1 cells exhibited dose-related decreases in pAKT levels. Pretreatment with an EGFR phosphorylation or mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase 1/2 inhibitor abrogated asbestos-induced phosphorylated ERK (pERK) 1/2 levels in both LP9/TERT-1 and MET5A cells as well as increases in pAKT levels in MET5A cells. Transient transfection of small interfering RNAs targeting ERK1, ERK2, or AKT revealed that ERK1/2 pathways were involved in cell death by asbestos in both cell lines. Asbestos-resistant HMESO or PPM Mill cells with high endogenous levels of ERKs or AKT did not show dose-responsive increases in pERK1/ERK1, pERK2/ERK2, or pAKT/AKT levels by asbestos. However, small hairpin ERK2 stable cell lines created from both malignant mesothelioma lines were more sensitive to asbestos toxicity than shERK1 and shControl lines, and exhibited unique, tumor-specific changes in endogenous cell death - related gene expression. Our results suggest that EGFR phosphorylation is causally linkedto pERK and pAKT activation by asbestos in normal and SV40 Tag - immortalized human mesothelial cells. They also indicate that ERK2 plays a role in modulating asbestos toxicity by regulating genes critical to cell injury and survival that are differentially expressed in human mesotheliomas.

Virus resistance and gene silencing in plants can be induced by simultaneous expression of sense and antisense RNA

Many examples of extreme virus resistance and posttranscriptional gene silencing of endogenous or reporter genes have been described in transgenic plants containing sense or antisense transgenes. In these cases of either cosuppression or antisense suppression, there appears to be induction of a surveillance system within the plant that specifically degrades both the transgene and target RNAs. We show that transforming plants with virus or reporter gene constructs that produce RNAs capable of duplex formation confer virus immunity or gene silencing on the plants. This was accomplished by using transcripts from one sense gene and one antisense gene colocated in the plant genome, a single transcript that has self-complementarity, or sense and antisense transcripts from genes brought together by crossing. A model is presented that is consistent with our data and those of other workers, describing the processes of induction and execution of posttranscriptional gene silencing.