Composti organostannici nell'ambiente marino e membrane biologiche: risposte molecolari e biochimiche nei molluschi bivalvi

Organotin compounds are worldwide diffused environmental contaminants, mainly as consequence of their extensive past use as biocides in antifouling paints. In spite of law restrictions, due to unwanted effects, organotin still persist in waters, being poorly degraded, easily resuspended from sediments and bioaccumulated in exposed organisms. The widespread toxicity and the possible threat to humans, likely to be organotin-exposed through contaminated seafood, make organotin interactions with biomolecules an intriguing biochemical topic, apart from a matter of ecotoxicological concern. Among organotins, tributyltin (TBT) is long known as the most dangerous and abundant chemical species in the Mediterranean Sea. Due to its amphiphilic nature, provided by three lipophilic arms and an electrophilic tin core, TBT can be easily incorporated in biomembranes and affect their functionality. Accordingly, it is known as a membrane-active toxicant and a mitochondrial poison. Up to now the molecular action modes of TBT are still partially unclear and poorly explored in bivalve mollusks, even if the latter play a not neglectable role in the marine trophic chain and efficiently accumulate organotins. The bivalve mollusk Mytilus galloprovincialis, selected for all experiments, is widely cultivated in the Mediterranean and currently used in ecotoxicological studies. Most work of this thesis was devoted to TBT effects on mussel mitochondria, but other possible targets of TBT were also considered. A great deal of literature points out TBT as endocrine disrupter and the masculinization of female marine gastropods, the so-called imposex, currently signals environmental organotin contamination. The hormonal status of TBT-exposed mussels and the possible interaction between hormones and contaminants in modulating microsomal hydroxilases, involved in steroid hormone and organotin detoxification, were the research topics in the period spent in Barcelona (Marco Polo fellowship). The variegated experimental approach, which consisted of two exposure experiments and in vitro tests, and the choice of selected tissues of M. galloprovincialis, the midgut gland for mitochondrial and microsomal preparations for subsequent laboratory assays and the gonads for the endocrine evaluations, aimed at drawing a clarifying pattern on the molecular mechanisms involved in organotin toxicity. TBT was promptly incorporated in midgut gland mitochondria of adult mussels exposed to 0.5 and 1.0 μg/L TBT, and partially degraded to DBT. TBT incorporation was accompanied by a decrease in the mitochondrial oligomycin-sensitive Mg-ATPase activity, while the coexistent oligomycin-insensitive fraction was unaffected. Mitochondrial fatty acids showed a clear rise in n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids after 120 hr of TBT exposure, mainly referable to an increase in 22:6 level. TBT was also shown to inhibit the ATP hydrolytic activity of the mitochondrial F1FO complex in vitro and to promote an apparent loss of oligomycin sensitivity at higher than 1.0 μM concentration. The complex dose-dependent profile of the inhibition curve lead to the hypothesis of multiple TBT binding sites. At lower than 1.0 μM TBT concentrations the non competitive enzyme inhibition by TBT was ascribed to the non covalent binding of TBT to FO subunit. On the other hand the observed drop in oligomycin sensitivity at higher than 1.0 μM TBT could be related to the onset of covalent bonds involving thiolic groups on the enzyme structure, apparently reached only at high TBT levels. The mitochondrial respiratory complexes were in vitro affected by TBT, apart from the cytocrome c oxidase which was apparently refractory to the contaminant. The most striking inhibitory effect was shown on complex I, and ascribed to possible covalent bonds of TBT with –SH groups on the enzyme complexes. This mechanism, shouldered by the progressive decrease of free cystein residues in the presence of increasing TBT concentrations, suggests that the onset of covalent tin-sulphur bonds in distinct protein structures may constitute the molecular basis of widespread TBT effects on mitochondrial complexes. Energy production disturbances, in turn affecting energy consuming mechanisms, could be involved in other cellular changes. Mussels exposed to a wide range of TBT concentrations (20 - 200 and 2000 ng/L respectively) did not show any change in testosterone and estrogen levels in mature gonads. Most hormones were in the non-biologically active esterified form both in control and in TBT-treated mussels. Probably the endocrine status of sexually mature mussels could be refractory even to high TBT doses. In mussel digestive gland the high biological variability of microsomal 7-benzyloxy-4-trifluoromethylcoumarin-O-Debenzyloxylase (BFCOD) activity, taken as a measure of CYP3A-like efficiency, probably concealed any enzyme response to TBT exposure. On the other hand the TBT-driven enhancement of BFCOD activity in vitro was once again ascribed to covalent binding to thiol groups which, in this case, would stimulate the enzyme activity. In mussels from Barcelona harbour, a highly contaminated site, the enzyme showed a decreased affinity for the 7-benzyloxy-4-trifluoromethylcoumarin (BCF) substrate with respect to mussel sampled from Ebro Delta, a non-polluted marine site. Contaminant exposure may thus alter the kinetic features of enzymes involved in detoxification mechanisms. Contaminants and steroid hormones were clearly shown to mutually interact in the modulation of detoxification mechanisms. The xenoestrogen 17α-ethylenyl estradiol (EE2) displayed a non-competitive mixed inhibition of CYP3A-like activity by a preferential bond to the free enzyme both in Barcelona harbour and Ebro Delta mussels. The possible interaction with co-present contaminants in Barcelona harbour mussels apparently lessened the formation of the ternary complex enzyme-EE2-BCF. The whole of data confirms TBT as membrane toxicant in mussels as in other species and stresses TBT covalent binding to protein thiols as a widespread mechanism of membrane-bound-enzyme activity modulation by the contaminant.

Studies of OPA1 pathogenic mechanisms in Dominant Optic Atrophy and novel protein function in mitochondrial DNA stability

The mitochondrion is an essential cytoplasmic organelle that provides most of the energy necessary for eukaryotic cell physiology. Mitochondrial structure and functions are maintained by proteins of both mitochondrial and nuclear origin. These organelles are organized in an extended network that dynamically fuses and divides. Mitochondrial morphology results from the equilibrium between fusion and fission processes, controlled by a family of “mitochondria-shaping” proteins. It is becoming clear that defects in mitochondrial dynamics can impair mitochondrial respiration, morphology and motility, leading to apoptotic cell death in vitro and more or less severe neurodegenerative disorders in vivo in humans. Mutations in OPA1, a nuclear encoded mitochondrial protein, cause autosomal Dominant Optic Atrophy (DOA), a heterogeneous blinding disease characterized by retinal ganglion cell degeneration leading to optic neuropathy (Delettre et al., 2000; Alexander et al., 2000). OPA1 is a mitochondrial dynamin-related guanosine triphosphatase (GTPase) protein involved in mitochondrial network dynamics, cytochrome c storage and apoptosis. This protein is anchored or associated on the inner mitochondrial membrane facing the intermembrane space. Eight OPA1 isoforms resulting from alternative splicing combinations of exon 4, 4b and 5b have been described (Delettre et al., 2001). These variants greatly vary among diverse organs and the presence of specific isoforms has been associated with various mitochondrial functions. The different spliced exons encode domains included in the amino-terminal region and contribute to determine OPA1 functions (Olichon et al., 2006). It has been shown that exon 4, that is conserved throughout evolution, confers functions to OPA1 involved in maintenance of the mitochondrial membrane potential and in the fusion of the network. Conversely, exon 4b and exon 5b, which are vertebrate specific, are involved in regulation of cytochrome c release from mitochondria, and activation of apoptosis, a process restricted to vertebrates (Olichon et al., 2007). While Mgm1p has been identified thanks to its role in mtDNA maintenance, it is only recently that OPA1 has been linked to mtDNA stability. Missense mutations in OPA1 cause accumulation of multiple deletions in skeletal muscle. The syndrome associated to these mutations (DOA-1 plus) is complex, consisting of a combination of dominant optic atrophy, progressive external ophtalmoplegia, peripheral neuropathy, ataxia and deafness (Amati- Bonneau et al., 2008; Hudson et al., 2008). OPA1 is the fifth gene associated with mtDNA “breakage syndrome” together with ANT1, PolG1-2 and TYMP (Spinazzola et al., 2009). In this thesis we show for the first time that specific OPA1 isoforms associated to exon 4b are important for mtDNA stability, by anchoring the nucleoids to the inner mitochondrial membrane. Our results clearly demonstrate that OPA1 isoforms including exon 4b are intimately associated to the maintenance of the mitochondrial genome, as their silencing leads to mtDNA depletion. The mechanism leading to mtDNA loss is associated with replication inhibition in cells where exon 4b containing isoforms were down-regulated. Furthermore silencing of exon 4b associated isoforms is responsible for alteration in mtDNA-nucleoids distribution in the mitochondrial network. In this study it was evidenced that OPA1 exon 4b isoform is cleaved to provide a 10kd peptide embedded in the inner membrane by a second transmembrane domain, that seems to be crucial for mitochondrial genome maintenance and does correspond to the second transmembrane domain of the yeasts orthologue encoded by MGM1 or Msp1, which is also mandatory for this process (Diot et al., 2009; Herlan et al., 2003). Furthermore in this thesis we show that the NT-OPA1-exon 4b peptide co-immuno-precipitates with mtDNA and specifically interacts with two major components of the mitochondrial nucleoids: the polymerase gamma and Tfam. Thus, from these experiments the conclusion is that NT-OPA1- exon 4b peptide contributes to the nucleoid anchoring in the inner mitochondrial membrane, a process that is required for the initiation of mtDNA replication and for the distribution of nucleoids along the network. These data provide new crucial insights in understanding the mechanism involved in maintenance of mtDNA integrity, because they clearly demonstrate that, besides genes implicated in mtDNA replications (i.e. polymerase gamma, Tfam, twinkle and genes involved in the nucleotide pool metabolism), OPA1 and mitochondrial membrane dynamics play also an important role. Noticeably, the effect on mtDNA is different depending on the specific OPA1 isoforms down-regulated, suggesting the involvement of two different combined mechanisms. Over two hundred OPA1 mutations, spread throughout the coding region of the gene, have been described to date, including substitutions, deletions or insertions. Some mutations are predicted to generate a truncated protein inducing haploinsufficiency, whereas the missense nucleotide substitutions result in aminoacidic changes which affect conserved positions of the OPA1 protein. So far, the functional consequences of OPA1 mutations in cells from DOA patients are poorly understood. Phosphorus MR spectroscopy in patients with the c.2708delTTAG deletion revealed a defect in oxidative phosphorylation in muscles (Lodi et al., 2004). An energetic impairment has been also show in fibroblasts with the severe OPA1 R445H mutation (Amati-Bonneau et al., 2005). It has been previously reported by our group that OPA1 mutations leading to haploinsufficiency are associated in fibroblasts to an oxidative phosphorylation dysfunction, mainly involving the respiratory complex I (Zanna et al., 2008). In this study we have evaluated the energetic efficiency of a panel of skin fibroblasts derived from DOA patients, five fibroblast cell lines with OPA1 mutations causing haploinsufficiency (DOA-H) and two cell lines bearing mis-sense aminoacidic substitutions (DOA-AA), and compared with control fibroblasts. Although both types of DOA fibroblasts maintained a similar ATP content when incubated in a glucose-free medium, i.e. when forced to utilize the oxidative phosphorylation only to produce ATP, the mitochondrial ATP synthesis through complex I, measured in digitonin-permeabilized cells, was significantly reduced in cells with OPA1 haploinsufficiency only, whereas it was similar to controls in cells with the missense substitutions. Furthermore, evaluation of the mitochondrial membrane potential (DYm) in the two fibroblast lines DOA-AA and in two DOA-H fibroblasts, namely those bearing the c.2819-2A>C mutation and the c.2708delTTAG microdeletion, revealed an anomalous depolarizing response to oligomycin in DOA-H cell lines only. This finding clearly supports the hypothesis that these mutations cause a significant alteration in the respiratory chain function, which can be unmasked only when the operation of the ATP synthase is prevented. Noticeably, oligomycin-induced depolarization in these cells was almost completely prevented by preincubation with cyclosporin A, a well known inhibitor of the permeability transition pore (PTP). This results is very important because it suggests for the first time that the voltage threshold for PTP opening is altered in DOA-H fibroblasts. Although this issue has not yet been addressed in the present study, several are the mechanisms that have been proposed to lead to PTP deregulation, including in particular increased reactive oxygen species production and alteration of Ca2+ homeostasis, whose role in DOA fibroblasts PTP opening is currently under investigation. Identification of the mechanisms leading to altered threshold for PTP regulation will help our understanding of the pathophysiology of DOA, but also provide a strategy for therapeutic intervention.

Pathogenic mechanisms in mitochondrial optic neuropathies

Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and Autosomal Dominant Optic Atrophy (ADOA) are the two most common inherited optic neuropathies and both are the result of mitochondrial dysfunctions. Despite the primary mutations causing these disorders are different, being an mtDNA mutation in subunits of complex I in LHON and defects in the nuclear gene encoding the mitochondrial protein OPA1 in ADOA, both pathologies share some peculiar features, such a variable penetrance and tissue-specificity of the pathological processes. Probably, one of the most interesting and unclear aspect of LHON is the variable penetrance. This phenomenon is common in LHON families, most of them being homoplasmic mutant. Inter-family variability of penetrance may be caused by nuclear or mitochondrial ‘secondary’ genetic determinants or other predisposing triggering factors. We identified a compensatory mechanism in LHON patients, able to distinguish affected individuals from unaffected mutation carriers. In fact, carrier individuals resulted more efficient than affected subjects in increasing the mitochondrial biogenesis to compensate for the energetic defect. Thus, the activation of the mitochondrial biogenesis may be a crucial factor in modulating penetrance, determining the fate of subjects harbouring LHON mutations. Furthermore, mtDNA content can be used as a molecular biomarker which, for the first time, clearly differentiates LHON affected from LHON carrier individuals, providing a valid mechanism that may be exploited for development of therapeutic strategies. Although the mitochondrial biogenesis gained a relevant role in LHON pathogenesis, we failed to identify a genetic modifying factor for the variable penetrance in a set of candidate genes involved in the regulation of this process. A more systematic high-throughput approach will be necessary to select the genetic variants responsible for the different efficiency in activating mitochondrial biogenesis. A genetic modifying factor was instead identified in the MnSOD gene. The SNP Ala16Val in this gene seems to modulate LHON penetrance, since the Ala allele in this position significantly predisposes to be affected. Thus, we propose that high MnSOD activity in mitochondria of LHON subjects may produce an overload of H2O2 for the antioxidant machinery, leading to release from mitochondria of this radical and promoting a severe cell damage and death ADOA is due to mutation in the OPA1 gene in the large majority of cases. The causative nuclear defects in the remaining families with DOA have not been identified yet, but a small number of families have been mapped to other chromosomal loci (OPA3, OPA4, OPA5, OPA7, OPA8). Recently, a form of DOA and premature cataract (ADOAC) has been associated to pathogenic mutations of the OPA3 gene, encoding a mitochondrial protein. In the last year OPA3 has been investigated by two different groups, but a clear function for this protein and the pathogenic mechanism leading to ADOAC are still unclear. Our study on OPA3 provides new information about the pattern of expression of the two isoforms OPA3V1 and OPA3V2, and, moreover, suggests that OPA3 may have a different function in mitochondria from OPA1, the major site for ADOA mutations. In fact, based on our results, we propose that OPA3 is not involved in the mitochondrial fusion process, but, on the contrary, it may regulate mitochondrial fission. Furthermore, at difference from OPA1, we excluded a role for OPA3 in mtDNA maintenance and we failed to identify a direct interaction between OPA3 and OPA1. Considering the results from overexpression and silencing of OPA3, we can conclude that the overexpression has more drastic consequences on the cells than silencing, suggesting that OPA3 may cause optic atrophy via a gain-of-function mechanism. These data provide a new starting point for future investigations aimed at identifying the exact function of OPA3 and the pathogenic mechanism causing ADOAC.

Der enzymatische und anti-oxidative Mechanismus des anti-atherogenen Enzyms Paraoxonase-2

Das humane Enzym PON2 ist in eine Vielzahl pathophysiologischer Prozesse involviert und ist durch zwei Funktionen gekennzeichnet - eine enzymatische Laktonase-Aktivität und eine anti-oxidative Aktivität. Durch die Laktonase-Aktivität hydrolysiert PON2 vorwiegend das bakterielle Signalmolekül 3oxoC12. PON2 ist als Bestandteil des angeborenen Immunsystems anzusehen und trägt wahrscheinlich zur Immunabwehr gegen Infektionen mit den human-pathogenen Pseudomonas aeruginosa Bakterien bei. Durch die anti-oxidative Aktivität vermindert PON2 oxidative Schäden und verringert redox-abhängige pro-apoptotische Stimulation. Diese einzigartige Funktion von PON2 ist jedoch ambivalent zu betrachten, da hohe PON2-Spiegel zwar Arteriosklerose reduzieren können, aber im Verdacht stehen Tumorzellen zu stabilisieren.rnIn dieser Arbeit wurden die noch unbekannten Mechanismen und der Zusammenhang der enzymatischen und der anti-oxidativen Aktivität analysiert. In diesem Rahmen wurde gezeigt, dass PON2 spezifisch die Superoxidfreisetzung an Komplex I und III der Atmungskette in der inneren Mitochondrienmembran reduzieren kann. PON2 veränderte dabei weder die Aktivitäten der Superoxiddismutasen noch die Cytochrom C-Expression. Weiterhin konnte in dieser Arbeit erstmals gezeigt werden, dass PON2 O2- nicht direkt abbaut, sondern vielmehr dessen Bildung verhindert. Diese Erkenntnisse implizieren, dass PON2 die anti-oxidative Aktivität über eine Beeinflussung des Quinon-Pools vermittelt. Anhand von verschiedenen Punktmutationen konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Histidinreste-114 und -133 für die Laktonase-Aktivität essentiell sind. Weiterhin wurden die Glykosylierungsstellen von PON2 identifiziert und gezeigt, dass die Glykosylierung, nicht aber der natürliche Polymorphismus Ser/Cys311 für die Laktonase-Aktivität von Bedeutung ist. Von besonderer Bedeutung ist, dass keine dieser Mutationen die anti-oxidative Aktivität beeinflusste, wodurch erstmals die Unabhängigkeit der beiden Funktionen von PON2 gezeigt werden konnte. rnEs war bekannt, dass PON2 gegen intrinsische und ER-Stress-induzierte Apoptose schützt. Die Spezifität der anti-oxidativen / anti-apoptotischen Wirkung wurde hier an einem weiteren pathophysiologischen Modell untersucht. 7-Ketocholesterol (7-KC) ist der Hauptbestandteil des pro-arteriosklerotischen oxLDL und verursacht in Zellen des Gefäßsystems ER-Stress, oxidativen Stress und Apoptose. Unerwarteterweise konnte PON2 Endothelzellen nicht gegen den 7-KC-induzierten Zelltod schützen. Mehrere unabhängige experimentelle Ansätze belegen, dass 7-KC in Endothelzellen im Gegensatz zu Gefäßmuskelzellen den Zelltod über Autophagie und nicht über ER-Stress oder intrinsische Apoptose bewirkt. Weiterhin führt 7-KC, wie auch 3oxoC12 und Thapsigargin zu einem Abbau der PON2-mRNA, die über die 5’UTR der PON2-mRNA vermittelt wird. Diese Arbeit vermittelt detaillierte mechanistische Einsichten in die Funktionen von PON2, die für ihre Rolle bei Arteriosklerose, in der körpereigenen Immunabwehr und bei Krebs entscheidend sind.rn

Untersuchung neuer hochwirksamer neuroprotektiver Antioxidantien in experimentellen Modellen der Parkinsonschen Krankheit

Bei der Parkinsonschen Krankheit kommt es zu einer selektiven Degeneration der dopaminergen Neurone in der Substantia nigra pars compacta. Die Rolle des oxidativen Stresses in der Pathogenese dieser Erkrankung konnte an post mortem Untersuchungen der Parkinson-Patienten, wie auch an zahlreichen in vitro und in vivo Modellen bestätigt werden. Die Anwendung von Antioxidantien wurde als therapeutische Strategie der Parkinsonschen Krankheit vorgeschlagen. In dieser Hinsicht wurden bereits antioxidative Substanzen in klinischen Studien evaluiert. Klinische Studien mit Antioxidantien haben jedoch bislang nur wenig überzeugende Ergebnisse erbracht, mit Ausnahme des Einsatzes des Ubichinons (Coenzym Q). Eine kritische Analyse der klinischen Studien lässt zusammenfassen, dass auf Seiten der verwendeten Antioxidantien noch massiver Optimierungsbedarf besteht. Für einen erfolgreichen therapeutischen Einsatz von Antioxidantien bei dieser Krankheit sind folgende Eigenschaften der Substanzen von höchster Bedeutung: i) maximale neuroprotektive Aktivität bei geringen Dosen; ii) geringe Nebenwirkungen; iii) eine hohe Blut-Hirn-Schrankengängigkeit.In dieser Arbeit wurde das neuroprotektive Potential von drei Bisarylimin-basierten antioxidativen Strukturen (Phenothiazin, Iminostilben und Phenoxazin) in in vitro und in vivo Parkinson-Modellsystemen evaluiert. Beide experimentellen Modelle basieren auf der Wirkung der mitochondrialen Komplex I Inhibitoren 1-Methyl-4-Phenylpyridin (MPP+) und Rotenon, welche pathophysiologische Charakteristika der Parkinsonschen Krankheit reproduzieren. Unsere in vitro Untersuchungen an primären Neuronen des Mittelhirns und der klonalen SH-SY5Y-Neuroblastomazelllinie konnten zeigen, dass die Komplex I Inhibition krankheitsspezifische zelluläre Merkmale induziert, wie die Abnahme der antioxidativen Verteidigungskapazität und Verlust des mitochondrialen Membranpotentials. Zusätzlich kommt es in primären Neuronen des Mittelhirns zur selektiven Degeneration dopaminerger Neurone, welche in der Parkinsonschen Erkrankung besonders betroffen sind. Ko-Inkubation der in vitro Modelle mit Phenothiazin, Iminostilben und Phenoxazin in niedrigen Konzentrationen (50 nM) halten die pathologischen Prozesse fast vollständig auf. In vivo Untersuchungen am MPP+- und Rotenon-basierten Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) Modell bestätigen das neuroprotektive Potential der Bisarylimine. Hierfür wurde eine transgene C. elegans Linie mithilfe einer dopaminerg spezifischen DsRed2- (Variante des rot fluoreszierenden Proteins von Discosoma sp.)-Expression und pan-neuronaler CFP- (cyan fluoreszierendes Protein)-Expression zur Visualisierung der dopaminergen Neuronenpopulation in Kontrast zum Gesamtnervensystem erstellt. Behandlung des C. elegans mit MPP+ und Rotenon im larvalen und adulten Stadium führt zu einer selektiven Degeneration dopaminerger Neurone, sowie zum Entwicklungsarrest der larvalen Population. Die dopaminerge Neurodegeneration, wie auch weitere phänotypische Merkmale des C. elegans Modells, können durch Phenothiazin, Iminostilben und Phenoxazin in niedrigen Konzentrationen (500 nM) komplett verhindert werden. Ein systemischer Vergleich aromatischer Bisarylimine mit bekannten, gut charakterisierten Antioxidantien, wie α-Tocopherol (Vitamin E), Epigallocatechingallat und β-Catechin, zeigt, dass effektive Konzentrationen für Phenothiazin, Iminostilben und Phenoxazin um Zehnerpotenzen niedriger liegen im Vergleich zu natürlichen Antioxidantien. Der Wirkungsmechanismus der Bisarylimine konnte in biochemischen und in vitro Analysen, sowie in Verhaltensuntersuchungen an C. elegans von der Wirkungsweise strukturell ähnlicher, neuroleptisch wirkender Phenothiazin-Derivate differenziert werden. Die Analyse des dopaminerg-gesteuerten Verhaltens (Beweglichkeit) in C. elegans konnte verdeutlichen, dass antioxidative und Dopaminrezeptor-bindende Eigenschaften der Bisaryliminstrukturen sich gegenseitig ausschließen. Diese qualitativen Merkmale unterscheiden Bisarylimine fundamental von klinisch angewandten Neuroleptika (Phenothiazin-Derivate), welche als Dopaminrezeptor-Antagonisten zur Behandlung psychischer Erkrankungen klinisch eingesetzt werden.Aromatische Bisarylimine (Phenothiazin, Iminostilben und Phenoxazin) besitzen günstige strukturelle Eigenschaften zur antioxidativ-basierter Neuroprotektion. Durch die Anwesenheit der antioxidativ wirkenden, nicht-substituierten Iminogruppe unterscheiden sich Bisarylimine grundlegend von neuroleptisch-wirkenden Phenothiazin-Derivaten. Wichtige strukturelle Voraussetzungen eines erfolgreichen antioxidativen Neuropharmakons, wie eine hohe Radikalisierbarkeit, die stabile Radikalform und der lipophile Charakter des aromatischen Ringsystems, werden in der Bisaryliminstruktur erfüllt. Antioxidative Bisarylimine könnten in der Therapie der Parkinsonschen Krankheit als eine effektive neuroprotektiv-therapeutische Strategie weiter entwickelt werden.

Funktionelle Analyse der Plasmamembran-Ca 2+-ATPase 2 -PMCA2- in Modellen der Neurodegeneration

Calcium (Ca2+) ist ein ubiquitär vorkommendes Signalmolekül, das an der Regulation zahlreicher zellulärer Prozesse, von der Proliferation bis zum programmierten Zelltod, beteiligt ist. Daher müssen die intrazellulären Ca2+-Spiegel streng kontrolliert werden. Veränderungen der Ca2+-Homöostase während der altersassoziierten Neurodegeneration können dazu beitragen, dass Neuronen vulnerabler sind. So wurden erhöhte Ca2+-Konzentrationen in gealterten Neuronen, begleitet von einer erhöhten Vulnerabilität, beobachtet (Hajieva et al., 2009a). Weiterhin wird angenommen, dass der selektive Untergang von dopaminergen Neuronen bei der Parkinson Erkrankung auf eine erhöhte Ca2+-Last zurückzuführen sein könnte, da diese Neuronen einem ständigen Ca2+-Influx,rnaufgrund einer besonderen Isoform (CaV 1.3) spannungsgesteuerter Ca2+-Kanäle des L-Typs, ausgesetzt sind (Chan et al., 2007). Bislang wurden die molekularen Mechanismen, die einem Ca2+-Anstieg zu Grunde liegen und dessen Auswirkung jedoch nicht vollständig aufgeklärt und daher in der vorliegenden Arbeit untersucht. Um Veränderungen der Ca2+-Homöostase während der altersassoziiertenrnNeurodegeneration zu analysieren wurden primäre Mittelhirnzellen aus Rattenembryonen und SH-SY5Y-Neuroblastomazellen mit dem Neurotoxin 1-Methyl-4-Phenyl-Pyridin (MPP+), das bei der Etablierung von Modellen der Parkinson-Erkrankung breite Anwendung findet, behandelt. Veränderungen der intrazellulären Ca2+-Konzentration wurden mit einem auf dem grün fluoreszierenden Protein (GFP)-basierten Ca2+-Indikator,rn„Cameleon cpYC 3.6“ (Nagai et al., 2004), ermittelt. Dabei wurde in dieser Arbeit gezeigt, dass MPP+ die Abregulation der neuronenspezifischen ATP-abhängigen Ca2+-Pumpe der Plasmamembran (PMCA2) induziert, die mit der Ca2+-ATPase des endoplasmatischen Retikulums (SERCA) und dem Na+/Ca2+-Austauscher (NCX) das zelluläre Ca2+-Effluxsystem bildet, was zu einer erhöhten zytosolischen Ca2+-Konzentration führt. Die PMCA2-Abnahme wurde sowohl auf Transkriptionsebene als auch auf Proteinebene demonstriert, während keine signifikanten Veränderungen der SERCA- und NCX-Proteinmengen festgestellt wurden. Als Ursache der Reduktion der PMCA2-Expression wurde eine Abnahme des Transkriptionsfaktors Phospho-CREB ermittelt, dessen Phosphorylierungsstatus abhängig von der Proteinkinase A (PKA) war. Dieser Mechanismus wurde einerseits unter MPP+-Einfluss und andererseits vermittelt durch endogene molekulare Modulatoren gezeigt. Interessanterweise konnten die durch MPP+ induzierte PMCA2-Abregulation und der zytosolische Ca2+-Anstieg durch die Aktivierung der PKA verhindert werden. Parallel dazu wurde eine MPP+-abhängige verringerte mitochondriale Ca2+-Konzentration nachgewiesen, welche mit einer Abnahme des mitochondrialen Membranpotentials korrelierte. Darüber hinaus kam es als Folge der PMCA2-Abnahme zu einem verminderten neuronalen Überleben.rnVeränderungen der Ca2+-Homöostase wurden auch während der normalen Alterung inrnprimären Fibroblasten und bei Mäusen nachgewiesen. Dabei wurden verringerte PMCA und SERCA-Proteinmengen in gealterten Fibroblasten, einhergehend mit einem Anstieg der zytosolischen Ca2+-Konzentration demonstriert. Weiterhin wurden verringerte PMCA2-Proteinmengen im Mittelhirn von gealterten Mäusen (C57B/6) detektiert.rnDer zelluläre Ca2+-Efflux ist somit sowohl im Zuge der physiologischen Alterung als auch in einem altersbezogenen Krankheitsmodell beeinträchtigt, was das neuronale Überleben beeinflussen kann. In zukünftige Studien soll aufgeklärt werden, welche Auswirkungen einer PMCA2-Reduktion genau zu dem Verlust von Neuronen führen bzw. ob durch eine PMCA2-Überexpression neurodegenerative Prozesse verhindert werden können.

Untersuchungen zur Wechselbeziehung zwischen Proteom, Energiestoffwechsel, Redoxstatus und Radiosensibilität von Tumorzellen in vitro und in vivo

Zielsetzung der vorliegenden Arbeit war die Erforschung ursächlicher Unterschiede im Energiestoffwechsel von hoch- und niedrig-glykolytischen Tumorzelllinien. Darüber hinaus wurde die Hypothese überprüft, wonach eine hohe glykolytische Aktivität in Tumorzellen zu einer Anreicherung von antioxidativen Metaboliten führt und infolgedessen eine Therapieresistenz gegen Gammabestrahlung hervorruft. Abschließend sollte durch biochemische und gentechnische Manipulationen des Energie- bzw. Glukosestoffwechsels die Strahlenresistenz von Tumorzellen verändert und somit neue therapeutische Interventionen eröffnet werden.rnDie zur Klärung dieser Fragestellung erforderlichen molekularbiologischen Experimente erfolgten an jeweils zwei Ovarialkarzinomzelllinien (OC316 und IGROV-1) und zwei Plattenepithelkarzinomzelllinien der Kopf- und Halsregion (SAS und FaDu) sowie den entsprechenden Experimentaltumoren.rnUnabhängig von der Tumorentität und dem Tumormodell konnte gezeigt werden, dass eine erhöhte Expression Stoffwechsel-assoziierter Proteine mit einem gesteigerten Energiestoffwechsel einhergeht. Der Transfer der Ovarial- und Plattenepithelkarzinomzelllinien in das Mausmodell führte zu keiner grundsätzlichen Änderung des Tumormikromilieus. So wies die hoch-metabolische Linie OC316 in vitro und in vivo eine stark erhöhte MCT-4 Expression auf, deren gentechnische Inhibition jedoch zu keiner Reduktion der Glykolyserate führte.rnDie Hypothese, dass die Laktatproduktion als prädiktiver Marker für die Strahlenresistenz einer Tumorzelllinie fungiert, konnte nicht bestätigt werden. Jedoch führte die Manipulation der intrazellulären Laktatbildung und des Energiestoffwechsels mit nicht zelltoxischen Konzentrationen von 2-Deoxy-D-glukose (2DG) und Rotenon (ROT) bei den Ovarialkarzinomzelllinien zu einer Erhöhung der intrazellulären O2--Anionen, einer Zunahme der Strahlenempfindlichkeit sowie zur Steigerung der initialen und residualen DNA-Doppelstrangbrüche nach Gammabestrahlung.rnHierbei wirken 2DG und ROT synergistisch durch die Inhibierung antioxidativer Systeme sowie durch die Erhöhung des zellulären Radikal-Status. Die Anwendung von Stoffwechselmanipulatoren zur Optimierung und Unterstützung vorhandener Radikal-erzeugender Therapieformen wird aktuell in klinischen Studien überprüft. Translational könnte die durch 2DG und ROT beschriebene Erhöhung der Strahlenempfindlichkeit bei Ovarialkarzinomzelllinien z. B. in Kombination mit intensitätsmodulierten Strahlentherapien neue Behandlungsmöglichkeiten eröffnen, was in weiterführenden in vivo Studien zu überprüfen ist.rn

Mitochondrial tRNA(Leu(UUR)) mutation m.3302A > G presenting as childhood-onset severe myopathy: threshold determination through segregation study

Mitochondrial tRNA(Leu(UUR)) mutation m.3302A > G is associated with respiratory chain complex I deficiency and has been described as a rare cause of mostly adult-onset slowly progressive myopathy. Five families with 11 patients have been described so far; 5 of them died young due to cardiorespiratory failure. Here, we report on a segregation study in a family with an index patient who already presented at the age of 18 months with proximal muscular hypotonia, abnormal fatigability, and lactic acidosis. This early-onset myopathy was rapidly progressive. At 8 years, the patient is wheel-chair bound, requires nocturnal assisted ventilation, and suffers from recurrent respiratory infections. Severe complex I deficiency and nearly homoplasmy for m.3302A > G were found in muscle. We collected blood, hair, buccal swabs and muscle biopsies from asymptomatic adults in this pedigree and determined heteroplasmy levels in these tissues as well as OXPHOS activities in muscle. All participating asymptomatic adults had normal OXPHOS activities. In contrast to earlier reports, we found surprisingly little variation of heteroplasmy levels in different tissues of the same individual. Up to 45% mutation load in muscle and up to 38% mutation load in other tissues were found in non-affected adults. The phenotypic spectrum of tRNA(Leu(UUR)) m.3302A > G mutation seems to be wider than previously described. A threshold of more than 45% heteroplasmy in muscle seems to be necessary to alter complex I activity leading to clinical manifestation. The presented data may be helpful for prognostic considerations and counseling in affected families.

Effects of catecholamines on hepatic and skeletal muscle mitochondrial respiration after prolonged exposure to faecal peritonitis in pigs

Use of norepinephrine to increase blood pressure in septic animals has been associated with increased efficiency of hepatic mitochondrial respiration. The aim of this study was to evaluate whether the same effect could be reproduced in isolated hepatic mitochondria after prolonged in vivo exposure to faecal peritonitis. Eighteen pigs were randomized to 27 h of faecal peritonitis and to a control condition (n = 9 each group). At the end, hepatic mitochondria were isolated and incubated for one hour with either norepinephrine or placebo, with and without pretreatment with the specific receptor antagonists prazosin and yohimbine. Mitochondrial state 3 and state 4 respiration were measured for respiratory chain complexes I and II, and state 3 for complex IV using high-resolution respirometry, and respiratory control ratios were calculated. Additionally, skeletal muscle mitochondrial respiration was evaluated after incubation with norepinephrine and dobutamine with and without the respective antagonists (atenolol, propranolol and phentolamine for dobutamine). Faecal peritonitis was characterized by decreasing blood pressure and stroke volume, and maintained systemic oxygen consumption. Neither faecal peritonitis nor any of the drugs or drug combinations had measurable effects on hepatic or skeletal muscle mitochondrial respiration. Norepinephrine did not improve the efficiency of complex I- and complex II-dependent isolated hepatic mitochondrial respiration [respiratory control ratio (RCR) complex I: 5.6 ± 5.3 (placebo) vs. 5.4 ± 4.6 (norepinephrine) in controls and 2.7 ± 2.1 (placebo) vs. 2.9 ± 1.5 (norepinephrine) in septic animals; RCR complex II: 3.5 ± 2.0 (placebo) vs. 3.5 ± 1.8 (norepinephrine) in controls; 2.3 ± 1.6 (placebo) vs. 2.2 ± 1.1 (norepinephrine) in septic animals]. Prolonged faecal peritonitis did not affect either hepatic or skeletal muscle mitochondrial respiration. Subsequent incubation of isolated mitochondria with norepinephrine and dobutamine did not significantly influence their respiration.

Cancer therapy modulates VEGF signaling and viability in adult rat cardiac microvascular endothelial cells and cardiomyocytes

This work was motivated by the incomplete characterization of the role of vascular endothelial growth factor-A (VEGF-A) in the stressed heart in consideration of upcoming cancer treatment options challenging the natural VEGF balance in the myocardium. We tested, if the cytotoxic cancer therapy doxorubicin (Doxo) or the anti-angiogenic therapy sunitinib alters viability and VEGF signaling in primary cardiac microvascular endothelial cells (CMEC) and adult rat ventricular myocytes (ARVM). ARVM were isolated and cultured in serum-free medium. CMEC were isolated from the left ventricle and used in the second passage. Viability was measured by LDH-release and by MTT-assay, cellular respiration by high-resolution oxymetry. VEGF-A release was measured using a rat specific VEGF-A ELISA-kit. CMEC were characterized by marker proteins including CD31, von Willebrand factor, smooth muscle actin and desmin. Both Doxo and sunitinib led to a dose-dependent reduction of cell viability. Sunitinib treatment caused a significant reduction of complex I and II-dependent respiration in cardiomyocytes and the loss of mitochondrial membrane potential in CMEC. Endothelial cells up-regulated VEGF-A release after peroxide or Doxo treatment. Doxo induced HIF-1α stabilization and upregulation at clinically relevant concentrations of the cancer therapy. VEGF-A release was abrogated by the inhibition of the Erk1/2 or the MAPKp38 pathway. ARVM did not answer to Doxo-induced stress conditions by the release of VEGF-A as observed in CMEC. VEGF receptor 2 amounts were reduced by Doxo and by sunitinib in a dose-dependent manner in both CMEC and ARVM. In conclusion, these data suggest that cancer therapy with anthracyclines modulates VEGF-A release and its cellular receptors in CMEC and ARVM, and therefore alters paracrine signaling in the myocardium.

Impairment of mitochondrial tRNAIle processing by a novel mutation associated with chronic progressive external ophthalmoplegia

We report a sporadic case of chronic progressive external ophthalmoplegia associated with ragged red fibers. The patient presented with enlarged mitochondria with deranged internal architecture and crystalline inclusions. Biochemical studies showed reduced activities of complex I, III and IV in skeletal muscle. Molecular genetic analysis of all mitochondrial tRNAs revealed a G to A transition at nt 4308; the G is a highly conserved nucleotide that participates in a GC base-pair in the T-stem of mammalian mitochondrial tRNA(Ile). The mutation was detected at a high level (approx. 50%) in muscle but not in blood. The mutation co-segregated with the phenotype, as the mutation was absent from blood and muscle in the patient's healthy mother. Functional characterization of the mutation revealed a six-fold reduced rate of tRNA(Ile) precursor 3' end maturation in vitro by tRNAse Z. Furthermore, the mutated tRNA(Ile) displays local structural differences from wild-type. These results suggest that structural perturbations reduce efficiency of tRNA(Ile) precursor 3' end processing and contribute to the molecular pathomechanism of this mutation.

Mitochondrial CB₁ receptors regulate neuronal energy metabolism

The mammalian brain is one of the organs with the highest energy demands, and mitochondria are key determinants of its functions. Here we show that the type-1 cannabinoid receptor (CB(1)) is present at the membranes of mouse neuronal mitochondria (mtCB(1)), where it directly controls cellular respiration and energy production. Through activation of mtCB(1) receptors, exogenous cannabinoids and in situ endocannabinoids decreased cyclic AMP concentration, protein kinase A activity, complex I enzymatic activity and respiration in neuronal mitochondria. In addition, intracellular CB(1) receptors and mitochondrial mechanisms contributed to endocannabinoid-dependent depolarization-induced suppression of inhibition in the hippocampus. Thus, mtCB(1) receptors directly modulate neuronal energy metabolism, revealing a new mechanism of action of G protein-coupled receptor signaling in the brain.

Mechanisms of hepatocellular toxicity associated with dronedarone--a comparison to amiodarone

Dronedarone is a new antiarrhythmic drug with an amiodarone-like benzofuran structure. Shortly after its introduction, dronedarone became implicated in causing severe liver injury. Amiodarone is a well-known mitochondrial toxicant. The aim of our study was to investigate mechanisms of hepatotoxicity of dronedarone in vitro and to compare them with amiodarone. We used isolated rat liver mitochondria, primary human hepatocytes, and the human hepatoma cell line HepG2, which were exposed acutely or up to 24h. After exposure of primary hepatocytes or HepG2 cells for 24h, dronedarone and amiodarone caused cytotoxicity and apoptosis starting at 20 and 50 µM, respectively. The cellular ATP content started to decrease at 20 µM for both drugs, suggesting mitochondrial toxicity. Inhibition of the respiratory chain required concentrations of ~10 µM and was caused by an impairment of complexes I and II for both drugs. In parallel, mitochondrial accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) was observed. In isolated rat liver mitochondria, acute treatment with dronedarone decreased the mitochondrial membrane potential, inhibited complex I, and uncoupled the respiratory chain. Furthermore, in acutely treated rat liver mitochondria and in HepG2 cells exposed for 24h, dronedarone started to inhibit mitochondrial β-oxidation at 10 µM and amiodarone at 20 µM. Similar to amiodarone, dronedarone is an uncoupler and an inhibitor of the mitochondrial respiratory chain and of β-oxidation both acutely and after exposure for 24h. Inhibition of mitochondrial function leads to accumulation of ROS and fatty acids, eventually leading to apoptosis and/or necrosis of hepatocytes. Mitochondrial toxicity may be an explanation for hepatotoxicity of dronedarone in vivo.

Effect of remifentanil on mitochondrial oxygen consumption of cultured human hepatocytes

During sepsis, liver dysfunction is common, and failure of mitochondria to effectively couple oxygen consumption with energy production has been described. In addition to sepsis, pharmacological agents used to treat septic patients may contribute to mitochondrial dysfunction. This study addressed the hypothesis that remifentanil interacts with hepatic mitochondrial oxygen consumption. The human hepatoma cell line HepG2 and their isolated mitochondria were exposed to remifentanil, with or without further exposure to tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α). Mitochondrial oxygen consumption was measured by high-resolution respirometry, Caspase-3 protein levels by Western blotting, and cytokine levels by ELISA. Inhibitory κBα (IκBα) phosphorylation, measurement of the cellular ATP content and mitochondrial membrane potential in intact cells were analysed using commercial ELISA kits. Maximal cellular respiration increased after one hour of incubation with remifentanil, and phosphorylation of IκBα occurred, denoting stimulation of nuclear factor κB (NF-κB). The effect on cellular respiration was not present at 2, 4, 8 or 16 hours of incubation. Remifentanil increased the isolated mitochondrial respiratory control ratio of complex-I-dependent respiration without interfering with maximal respiration. Preincubation with the opioid receptor antagonist naloxone prevented a remifentanil-induced increase in cellular respiration. Remifentanil at 10× higher concentrations than therapeutic reduced mitochondrial membrane potential and ATP content without uncoupling oxygen consumption and basal respiration levels. TNF-α exposure reduced respiration of complex-I, -II and -IV, an effect which was prevented by prior remifentanil incubation. Furthermore, prior remifentanil incubation prevented TNF-α-induced IL-6 release of HepG2 cells, and attenuated fragmentation of pro-caspase-3 into cleaved active caspase 3 (an early marker of apoptosis). Our data suggest that remifentanil increases cellular respiration of human hepatocytes and prevents TNF-α-induced mitochondrial dysfunction. The results were not explained by uncoupling of mitochondrial respiration.

Effect of endotoxin, dobutamine and dopamine on muscle mitochondrial respiration in vitro

INTRODUCTION: Mitochondrial respiration is impaired during endotoxemia. While catecholamines are frequently used in sepsis, their effects on mitochondrial function are controversial. We assessed effects of dobutamine and dopamine endotoxin on isolated muscle mitochondria. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Sternocleidomastoid muscle mitochondria were isolated from six anesthetized pigs. Each sample was divided into six different groups. Three groups were incubated with endotoxin, three with vehicle. After 1 h, dopamine and dobutamine at final concentrations of 100 microM were added to the vehicle and endotoxin groups. After 2 h, state 3 and 4 respiration rates were determined for all mitochondrial complexes. Oxygen consumption was determined with a Clark-type electrode. RESULTS: Endotoxin increased glutamate-dependent state 4 respiration from 9.3 +/- 3.6 to 31.9 +/- 9.1 (P = 0.001) without affecting state 3 respiration. This reduced the efficiency of mitochondrial respiration (RCR; state 3/state 4, 9.9 +/- 1.9 versus 3.6 +/- 0.6; P < 0.001). The other complexes were unaffected. Catecholamine partially restored the endotoxin-induced increase in complex I state 4 respiration rate (31.9 +/- 9.1 versus 17.1 +/- 6.4 and 20.1 +/- 12.2) after dopamine and dobutamine, respectively (P = 0.007), and enhanced the ADP:O ratio (P = 0.033). CONCLUSIONS: Dopamine and dobutamine enhanced the efficiency of mitochondrial respiration after short-term endotoxin exposure.