Characterization of a thermostable extracellular tannase produced under submerged fermentation by Aspergillus ochraceus

Background: Tannases are enzymes that may be used in different industrial sectors as, for example, food and pharmaceutical. They are obtained mainly from microorganisms, as filamentous fungi. However, the diversity of fungi stays poorly explored for tannase production. In this article, Aspergillus ochraceus is presented as a new source of tannase with interesting features for biotechnological applications. Results: Extracellular tannase production was induced when the fungus was cultured in Khanna medium with tannic acid as carbon source. The extracellular tannase was purified 9-fold with 2% recovery and a single band corresponding to 85 kDa was observed in SDS-PAGE. The native apparent molecular mass was estimated as 112 kDa. Optima of temperature and pH were 40 degrees C and 5.0, respectively. The enzyme was fully stable from 40 degrees C to 60 degrees C during 1 hr. The activity was enhanced by Mn2+ (33-39%) and NH4+ (15%). The purified tannase hydrolyzed tannic acid and methyl gallate with Km of 0.76 mM and 0.72 mM, respectively, and Vmax of 0.92 U/mg protein and 0.68 U/mg protein, respectively. The analysis of a partial sequence of the tannase encoding gene showed an open read frame of 567 bp and a sequence of 199 amino acids were predicted. TLC analysis revealed the presence of gallic acid as a tannic acid hydrolysis product. Conclusion: The extracellular tannase produced by A. ochraceus showed distinctive characteristics such as monomeric structure and activation by Mn2+, suggesting a new kind of fungal tannases with biotechnological potential. Further, it was the first time that a partial gene sequence for A. ochraceus tannase was described.

Expression of the repressor element-1 silencing transcription factor (REST) is regulated by IGF-I and PKC in human neuroblastoma cells

The repressor element 1-silencing transcription factor (REST) was first identified as a protein that binds to a 21-bp DNA sequence element (known as repressor element 1 (RE1)) resulting in transcriptional repression of the neural-specific genes [Chong et al., 1995; Schoenherr and Anderson, 1995]. The original proposed role for REST was that of a factor responsible for restricting neuronal gene expression to the nervous system by silencing expression of these genes in non-neuronal cells. Although it was initially thought to repress neuronal genes in non-neuronal cells, the role of REST is complex and tissue dependent. In this study I investigated any role played by REST in the induction and patterning of differentiation of SH-SY5Y human neuroblastoma cells exposed to IGF-I. and phorbol 12- myristate 13-acetate (PMA) To down-regulate REST expression we developed an antisense (AS) strategy based on the use of phosphorothioate oligonucleotides (ODNs). In order to evaluate REST mRNA levels, we developed a real-time PCR technique and REST protein levels were evaluated by western blotting. Results showed that nuclear REST is increased in SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells cultured in SFM and exposed to IGF-I for 2-days and it then declines in 5-day-treated cells concomitant with a progressive neurite extension. Also the phorbol ester PMA was able to increase nuclear REST levels after 3-days treatment concomitant to neuronal differentiation of neuroblastoma cells, whereas, at later stages, it is down-regulated. Supporting these data, the exposure to PKC inhibitors (GF10923X and Gö6976) and PMA (16nM) reverted the effects observed with PMA alone. REST levels were related to morphological differentiation, expression of growth coneassociated protein 43 (GAP-43; a gene not regulated by REST) and of synapsin I and βIII tubulin (genes regulated by REST), proteins involved in the early stage of neuronal development. We observed that differentiation of SH-SY5Y cells by IGF-I and PMA was accompanied by a significant increase of these neuronal markers, an effect that was concomitant with REST decrease. In order to relate the decreased REST expression with a progressive neurite extension, I investigated any possible involvement of the ubiquitin–proteasome system (UPS), a multienzymatic pathway which degrades polyubiquinated soluble cytoplasmic proteins [Pickart and Cohen, 2004]. For this purpose, SH-SY5Y cells are concomitantly exposed to PMA and the proteasome inhibitor MG132. In SH-SY5Y exposed to PMA and MG 132, we observed an inverse pattern of expression of synapsin I and β- tubulin III, two neuronal differentiation markers regulated by REST. Their cytoplasmic levels are reduced when compared to cells exposed to PMA alone, as a consequence of the increase of REST expression by proteasome inhibitor. The majority of proteasome substrates identified to date are marked for degradation by polyubiquitinylation; however, exceptions to this principle, are well documented [Hoyt and Coffino, 2004]. Interestingly, REST degradation seems to be completely ubiquitin-independent. The expression pattern of REST could be consistent with the theory that, during early neuronal differentiation induced by IGF-I and PKC, it may help to repress the expression of several genes not yet required by the differentiation program and then it declines later. Interestingly, the observation that REST expression is progressively reduced in parallel with cell proliferation seems to indicate that the role of this transcription factor could also be related to cell survival or to counteract apotosis events [Lawinger et al., 2000] although, as shown by AS-ODN experiments, it does not seem to be directly involved in cell proliferation. Therefore, the decline of REST expression is a comparatively later event during maturation of neuroroblasts in vitro. Thus, we propose that REST is regulated by growth factors, like IGF-I, and PKC activators in a time-dependent manner: it is elevated during early steps of neural induction and could contribute to down-regulate genes not yet required by the differentiation program while it declines later for the acquisition of neural phenotypes, concomitantly with a progressive neurite extension. This later decline is regulated by the proteasome system activation in an ubiquitin-indipendent way and adds more evidences to the hypothesis that REST down-regulation contributes to differentiation and arrest of proliferation of neuroblastoma cells. Finally, the glycosylation pattern of the REST protein was analysed, moving from the observation that the molecular weight calculated on REST sequence is about 116 kDa but using western blotting this transcription factor appears to have distinct apparent molecular weight (see Table 1.1): this difference could be explained by post-translational modifications of the proteins, like glycosylation. In fact recently, several studies underlined the importance of O-glycosylation in modulating transcriptional silencing, protein phosphorylation, protein degradation by proteasome and protein–protein interactions [Julenius et al., 2005; Zachara and Hart, 2006]. Deglycosilating analysis showed that REST protein in SH-SY5Y and HEK293 cells is Oglycosylated and not N-glycosylated. Moreover, using several combination of deglycosilating enzymes it is possible to hypothesize the presence of Gal-β(1-3)-GalNAc residues on the endogenous REST, while β(1-4)-linked galactose residues may be present on recombinant REST protein expressed in HEK293 cells. However, the O-glycosylation process produces an immense multiplicity of chemical structures and monosaccharides must be sequentially hydrolyzed by a series of exoglycosidase. Further experiments are needed to characterize all the post-translational modification of the transcription factor REST.

Untersuchung der Pigment- und Proteinzusammensetzung der peripheren Lichtsammelantenne des Photosystem I

Die Lichtsammelantenne des PSI (LHCI) ist hinsichtlich ihrer Protein- und Pigmentzusammensetzung weniger gut untersucht als die des PSII. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurde deshalb zunächst die Isolation von nativen LHCI-Subkomplexen optimiert und deren Pigmentzusammensetzung untersucht. Zusätzlich wurde die Pigmentbindung analysiert sowie das Pigment/Protein-Verhältnis bestimmt. Die Analyse der Proteinzusammensetzung des LHCI erfolgte mittels einer Kombination aus ein- oder zweidimensionaler Gelelektrophorese mit Westernblotanalysen mit Lhca-Protein-spezifischen Antikörpern und massenspektrometrischen Untersuchungen. Dabei stellte sich heraus, dass der LHCI mehr Proteine bzw. Proteinisoformen enthält als bisher vermutet. So gelang durch die massenspektrometrischen Untersuchungen die Identifizierung zweier bisher noch nicht nachgewiesener Lhca-Proteine. Bei diesen handelt es sich um eine Isoform des Lhca4 und ein zusätzliches Lhca-Protein, das Tomaten-Homolog des Lhca5 von Arabidopsis thaliana. Außerdem wurden in 1D-Gelen Isoformen von Lhca-Proteinen mit unterschiedlichem elektrophoretischen Verhalten beobachtet. In 2D-Gelen trat zusätzlich eine große Anzahl an Isoformen mit unterschiedlichen isoelektrischen Punkten auf. Es ist zu vermuten, dass zumindest ein Teil dieser Isoformen physiologischen Ursprungs ist, und z.B. durch differentielle Prozessierung oder posttranslationale Modifikationen verursacht wird, wenn auch die Spotvielfalt in 2D-Gelen wohl eher auf die Probenaufbereitung zurückzuführen ist. Mittels in vitro-Rekonstitution mit anschließenden biochemischen Untersuchungen und Fluoreszenzmessungen wurde nachgewiesen, dass Lhca5 ein funktioneller LHC mit spezifischen Pigmentbindungseigenschaften ist. Außerdem zeigten in vitro-Dimerisierungsexperimente eine Interaktion zwischen Lhca1 und Lhca5, wodurch dessen Zugehörigkeit zur Antenne des PSI gestützt wird. In vitro-Dimerisierungsexperimente mit Lhca2 und Lhca3 führten dagegen nicht zur Bildung von Dimeren. Dies zeigt, dass die Interaktion in potentiellen Homo- oder Heterodimeren aus Lhca2 und/oder Lhca3 schwächer ist als die zwischen Lhca1 und Lhca4 oder Lhca5. Die beobachtete Proteinheterogenität deutet daraufhin, dass die Antenne des PSI eine komplexere Zusammensetzung hat als bisher angenommen. Für die Integration „neuer“ LHC in den PSI-LHCI-Holokomplex werden zwei Modelle vorgeschlagen: geht man von einer festen Anzahl von LHCI-Monomeren aus, so kann sie durch den Austausch einzelner LHC-Monomere erreicht werden. Als zweites Szenario ist die Bindung zusätzlicher LHC vorstellbar, die entweder indirekt über bereits vorhandene LHC oder direkt über PSI-Kernuntereinheiten mit dem PSI interagieren. In Hinblick auf die Pigmentbindung der nativen LHCI-Subfraktionen konnte gezeigt werden, dass sie Pigmente in einer spezifischen Stöchiometrie und Anzahl binden, und sich vom LHCIIb vor allem durch eine verstärkte Bindung von Chlorophyll a, eine geringere Anzahl von Carotinoiden und die Bindung von ß-Carotin an Stelle von Neoxanthin unterscheiden. Der Vergleich von nativem LHCI mit rekonstituierten Lhca-Proteinen ergab, dass Lhca-Proteine Pigmente in einer spezifischen Stöchiometrie binden, und dass sie Carotinoidbindungsstellen mit flexiblen Bindungseigenschaften besitzen. Auch über die Umwandlung des an die einzelnen Lhca-Proteine gebundenen Violaxanthins (Vio) im Xanthophyllzyklus war nur wenig bekannt. Deshalb wurden mit Hilfe eines in vitro-Deepoxidationssystems sowohl native als auch rekonstituierte LHCI hinsichtlich ihrer Deepoxidationseigenschaften untersucht und der Deepoxidationsgrad von in vivo deepoxidierten Pigment-Protein-Komplexen bestimmt. Aus den Deepoxidationsexperimenten konnte abgeleitet werden, dass in den verschiedenen Lhca-Proteinen unterschiedliche Carotinoidbindungsstellen besetzt sind. Außerdem bestätigten diese Experimente, dass der Xanthophyllzyklus auch im LHCI auftritt, wobei jedoch ein niedrigerer Deepoxidationsgrad erreicht wird als bei LHCII. Dies konnte durch in vitro-Deepoxidationsversuchen auf eine geringere Deepoxidierbarkeit des von Lhca1 und Lhca2 gebundenen Vio zurückgeführt werden. Damit scheint Vio in diesen Lhca-Proteinen eher eine strukturelle Rolle zu übernehmen. Eine photoprotektive Funktion von Zeaxanthin im PSI wäre folglich auf Lhca3 und Lhca4 beschränkt. Damit enthält jede LHCI-Subfraktion ein LHC-Monomer mit langwelliger Fluoreszenz, das möglicherweise am Lichtschutz beteiligt ist. Insgesamt zeigten die Untersuchungen der Pigmentbindung, der Deepoxidierung und der Fluoreszenzeigenschaften, dass sich die verschiedenen Lhca-Proteine in einem oder mehreren dieser Parameter unterscheiden. Dies lässt vermuten, dass schon durch leichte Veränderungen in der Proteinzusammensetzung des LHCI eine Anpassung an unterschiedliche Licht-verhältnisse erreicht werden kann.

Identification of the N-Linked Glycosylation Sites of the Transcription Factor Rest and Effect of Glycosylation on DNA Binding and Transcriptional Activity

REST is a zinc-finger transcription factor implicated in several processes such as maintenance of embryonic stem cell pluripotency and regulation of mitotic fidelity in non-neuronal cells [Chong et al., 1995]. The gene encodes for a 116-kDa protein that acts as a molecular platform for co-repressors recruitment and promotes modifications of DNA and histones [Ballas, 2005]. REST showed different apparent molecular weights, consistent with the possible presence of post-translational modifications [Lee et al., 2000]. Among these the most common is glycosylation, the covalent attachment of carbohydrates during or after protein synthesis [Apweiler et al., 1999] My thesis has ascertained, for the first time, the presence of glycan chians in the transcription factor REST. Through enzymatic deglycosylation and MS, oligosaccharide composition of glycan chains was evaluated: a complex mixture of glycans, composed of N-acetylgalactosamine, galactose and mannose, was observed thus confirming the presence of O- and N-linked glycan chains. Glycosylation site mapping was done using a 18O-labeling method and MS/MS and twelve potential N-glycosylation sites were identified. The most probable glycosylation target residues were mutated through site-directed mutagenesis and REST mutants were expressed in different cell lines. Variations in the protein molecular weight and mutant REST ability to bind the RE-1 sequence were analyzed. Gene reporter assays showed that, altogether, removal of N-linked glycan chains causes loss of transcriptional repressor function, except for mutant N59 which showed a slight residual repressor activity in presence of IGF-I. Taken togheter these results demonstrate the presence of complex glycan chians in the transcription factor REST: I have depicted their composition, started defining their position on the protein backbone and identified their possible role in the transcription factor functioning. Considering the crucial role of glycosylation and transcription factors activity in the aetiology of many diseases, any further knowledge could find important and interesting pharmacological application.

The effect of osmolytes on protein fold stability at the single-molecule level

By pulling and releasing the tension on protein homomers with the Atomic Force Miscroscope (AFM) at different pulling speeds, dwell times and dwell distances, the observed force-response of the protein can be fitted with suitable theoretical models. In this respect we developed mathematical procedures and open-source computer codes for driving such experiments and fitting Bell’s model to experimental protein unfolding forces and protein folding frequencies. We applied the above techniques to the study of proteins GB1 (the B1 IgG-binding domain of protein G from Streptococcus) and I27 (a module of human cardiac titin) in aqueous solutions of protecting osmolytes such as dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), glycerol and trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO). In order to get a molecular understanding of the experimental results we developed an Ising-like model for proteins that incorporates the osmophobic nature of their backbone. The model benefits from analytical thermodynamics and kinetics amenable to Monte-Carlo simulation. The prevailing view used to be that small protecting osmolytes bridge the separating beta-strands of proteins with mechanical resistance, presumably shifting the transition state to significantly higher distances that correlate with the molecular size of the osmolyte molecules. Our experiments showed instead that protecting osmolytes slow down protein unfolding and speed-up protein folding at physiological pH without shifting the protein transition state on the mechanical reaction coordinate. Together with the theoretical results of the Ising-model, our results lend support to the osmophobic theory according to which osmolyte stabilisation is a result of the preferential exclusion of the osmolyte molecules from the protein backbone. The results obtained during this thesis work have markedly improved our understanding of the strategy selected by Nature to strengthen protein stability in hostile environments, shifting the focus from hypothetical protein-osmolyte interactions to the more general mechanism based on the osmophobicity of the protein backbone.

Morphologischer und biochemischer Aufbau von Silikatnadeln der Hexactinelliden am Beispiel von Monorhaphis chuni

Schon 1904 beschrieb Schulze den Aufbau von Silikatnadeln des Schwammes Monorhaphis chuni, eines Mitglieds der zweiten Familie von biosilifizierenden Schwämmen, den Hexactinelliden (Glasschwämmen). Weitergehende morphologische Untersuchungen und biochemische Analysen insbesondere mit modernen Methoden wurden an Hexactinelliden bisher kaum durchgeführt. Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit bestand deshalb darin, Untersuchungen zur Morphologie, der chemischen Zusammensetzung, der Verteilung und Charakterisierung der beteiligten anorganischen und organischen Komponenten sowie einen molekularbiologischer Nachweis der Existenz von Silicatein in Hexactinelliden durchzuführen. Für diese Untersuchungen wurden zwei Spezies verwendet: Monorhaphis chuni und Crateromorpha meyeri. Mittels Elektronen-Mikrosonden-Technik wurde an Querschnitten der Pfahlnadel von M. chuni die Verteilung der Elemente innerhalb der Nadel untersucht. Am äußeren Rand der Nadel (150 µm) traten im Vergleich zur Nadelmitte prägnante Unterschiede in der Konzentration von Kaliumoxid und Natriumoxid auf. Diese Ergebnisse deuten auf das Vorhandensein eines ähnlichen Transportsystems zur Anreicherung von Silizium/Silikat bei der Nadelbildung hin, wie es bereits in S. domuncula bekannt ist. Mit elektronen- und lichtmikroskopischen Untersuchungen wurden die organischen Substanzen der Silikatnadel nachgewiesen und deren Verteilung innerhalb dieser Nadeln analysiert. In der lamellaren Zone befindet sich, eine säurelabile organische Netzstruktur, sowie eine, die Silikatschichten durchspannende, säulenähnliche Struktur. Im Axialzylinder zeigt das organische Material eine leicht verzweigte fibrilläre Anordnung. Mit biochemischen Verfahren wurden die organischen Komponenten der Nadeln detaillierter untersucht. Mehrere Proteine mit Molekulargewichten von 17, 24, 27 ,30, 36 und 70 kDa wurden durch gelelektrophoretische Analysen von Material der Pfahlnadel identifiziert. Die Analyse isolierter Anteile der lamellaren Zone zeigte ausschließlich ein 27 kDa Protein. Die restlichen Proteinbanden konnten hier nicht nachgewiesen werden. Das 27 kDa Protein reagierte im Westernblot mit Antikörpern gegen Silicatein aus S. domuncula. Ein weiteres Protein wurde näher charakterisert. Ein positiver Agglutinationsassay wies ein lectinähnliches Molekül innerhalb der Nadeln nach, wie es aus S. domuncula bekannt ist. Nach einer Deglycolysierung der Proteine reduzierte sich das scheinbare Molekulargewicht der 36 kDa Bande auf 30 kDa. Durch molekularbiologische Untersuchungen wurde erstmals in Hexactinelliden die Existenz von Silicatein nachgewiesen. Nach Isolierung der Gesamt-RNA von Crateromorpha meyeri, RT-PCR und Amplifizierung mit silicateinspezifischen Primern wurde eine 549 kBp Nukleotidsequenz gefunden, die auf Aminosäureebene starke Homologien (76% identische Aminosäuren) zu bekannten Silicateinen der Demospongia aufweist. Die Aminosäuren der katalytische Triade des Silicateins, essenziell für die enzymatische Katalyse des Enzyms, sind an den selben Positionen wie bei bekannten Silicateinen vorhanden.

Pore structure and column efficiency of silica monoliths in high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)

Five different methods were critically examined to characterize the pore structure of the silica monoliths. The mesopore characterization was performed using: a) the classical BJH method of nitrogen sorption data, which showed overestimated values in the mesopore distribution and was improved by using the NLDFT method, b) the ISEC method implementing the PPM and PNM models, which were especially developed for monolithic silicas, that contrary to the particulate supports, demonstrate the two inflection points in the ISEC curve, enabling the calculation of pore connectivity, a measure for the mass transfer kinetics in the mesopore network, c) the mercury porosimetry using a new recommended mercury contact angle values. rnThe results of the characterization of mesopores of monolithic silica columns by the three methods indicated that all methods were useful with respect to the pore size distribution by volume, but only the ISEC method with implemented PPM and PNM models gave the average pore size and distribution based on the number average and the pore connectivity values.rnThe characterization of the flow-through pore was performed by two different methods: a) the mercury porosimetry, which was used not only for average flow-through pore value estimation, but also the assessment of entrapment. It was found that the mass transfer from the flow-through pores to mesopores was not hindered in case of small sized flow-through pores with a narrow distribution, b) the liquid penetration where the average flow-through pore values were obtained via existing equations and improved by the additional methods developed according to Hagen-Poiseuille rules. The result was that not the flow-through pore size influences the column bock pressure, but the surface area to volume ratio of silica skeleton is most decisive. Thus the monolith with lowest ratio values will be the most permeable. rnThe flow-through pore characterization results obtained by mercury porosimetry and liquid permeability were compared with the ones from imaging and image analysis. All named methods enable a reliable characterization of the flow-through pore diameters for the monolithic silica columns, but special care should be taken about the chosen theoretical model.rnThe measured pore characterization parameters were then linked with the mass transfer properties of monolithic silica columns. As indicated by the ISEC results, no restrictions in mass transfer resistance were noticed in mesopores due to their high connectivity. The mercury porosimetry results also gave evidence that no restrictions occur for mass transfer from flow-through pores to mesopores in the small scaled silica monoliths with narrow distribution. rnThe prediction of the optimum regimes of the pore structural parameters for the given target parameters in HPLC separations was performed. It was found that a low mass transfer resistance in the mesopore volume is achieved when the nominal diameter of the number average size distribution of the mesopores is appr. an order of magnitude larger that the molecular radius of the analyte. The effective diffusion coefficient of an analyte molecule in the mesopore volume is strongly dependent on the value of the nominal pore diameter of the number averaged pore size distribution. The mesopore size has to be adapted to the molecular size of the analyte, in particular for peptides and proteins. rnThe study on flow-through pores of silica monoliths demonstrated that the surface to volume of the skeletons ratio and external porosity are decisive for the column efficiency. The latter is independent from the flow-through pore diameter. The flow-through pore characteristics by direct and indirect approaches were assessed and theoretical column efficiency curves were derived. The study showed that next to the surface to volume ratio, the total porosity and its distribution of the flow-through pores and mesopores have a substantial effect on the column plate number, especially as the extent of adsorption increases. The column efficiency is increasing with decreasing flow through pore diameter, decreasing with external porosity, and increasing with total porosity. Though this tendency has a limit due to heterogeneity of the studied monolithic samples. We found that the maximum efficiency of the studied monolithic research columns could be reached at a skeleton diameter of ~ 0.5 µm. Furthermore when the intention is to maximize the column efficiency, more homogeneous monoliths should be prepared.rn

Ionic liquids in a multiscale study

Trotz des hohen Interesse an Ionischen Flüssigkeiten wird das zielgerichtete Design und die Anwendung Ionischer Flüssigkeiten durch fehlendes grundlegendes Verständnis erschwert. Deshalb wurde die Balance der molekularen Wechselwirkungen in Ionischen Flüssigkeiten studiert, um die Eigenschaften dieser zu verstehen und die Kraftfeldentwicklung im Rahmen des Multiskalenansatzes zu systematisieren. Es wurden reine Imidazolium-basierte Ionische Flüssigkeiten, Mischungen mit kleinen Molekülen und eine protische Ionische Flüssigkeit mit ab-initio-Methoden, hauptsächlich Car-Parrinello-Molekulardynamik, untersucht. Weiterhin wurden Eigenschaften der Flüssigphase mit denen von Ionenpaaren verglichen.rnIm Fokus standen die molekularen elektrostatischen Eigenschaften und es wurde gezeigt, dass Coulomb-Wechselwirkungen zu einzigartigen Charakteristika führten. So waren die Ionen-Nettoladungen stets reduziert, die molekularen Dipolmomentverteilungen sehr breit, elektronische Polarisation war entscheidend. Die elektrostatischen Eigenschaften waren allgemein lokal auf molekularen Größen- und Zeitskalen und hingen stark von Phasenzustand und Zusammensetzung ab. Für andere molekulare Eigenschaften, wie der Neigung zu dispersiven Kontakten oder Wasserstoffbrücken, wurde gezeigt, dass sie einen entscheidenden Einfluss auf die Feinstruktur Ionischer Flüssigkeiten hatten. Das Gleichgewicht der Wechselwirkungen zeigte sich auch in Leistungsspektren, die sich aus den ab-initio-Molekulardynamiksimulationen ergaben. Diese boten einen neuen Weg für den Vergleich zum Experiment und für einen Einblick in die schnelle Dynamik Ionischer Flüssigkeiten.

Investigation of different shellac grades and improvement of release from air suspension coated pellets

Shellac is the purified product of the natural polymer Lac. Shellac types, from different origins and with different ages, all purified by the solvent extraction process were compared in this study. Their physicochemical properties acid value, glass transition temperatures, color numbers and molecular sizes were determined. Metoprolol tartrate pellets were coated by air suspension coating with these different grades of shellac. Two coating levels 20% w/w and 25% w/w were applied and then subjected to in vitro dissolution testing. Enteric resistance was achieved for all tested brands for the two coating levels. At pH 6.8, 7.2 and 7.4, significant variations were obvious between the brands. rnMoreover the molecular size of shellac has a pronounced effect in that shellac types with larger molecular size show a higher and faster release than others, while the one with the smaller molecular size show the opposite effect on the release of metoprolol.rnIn this study commercially available ready for use aqueous shellac solutions (SSB AQUAGOLD), which are based on shellac SSB 57 (Dewaxed Orange Shellac, Bysakhi-Ber type refined in a solvent extraction process), with different manufacturing dates were used. rnTo improve the enteric coating properties of films from aqueous shellac solutions, different aqueous polymeric solutions of hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC), hydroxypropyl cellulose (HPC), carboyxmethyl cellulose (CMC), gum arabic and polysaccharides (Pullulan®) were used. These water soluble polymers will act as pore formers to enhance drug release from pellets coated with the combination of shellac and these polymers. The influence of these polymers on the gloss of the shellac films, mechanical properties of the films and drug release from metoprolol tartrate pellets were studied.rnThe potential of ethanol to alter the rate of drug release from shellac coated pellets was assessed by using a modified in vitro dose dumping in alcohol (DDA) method and the test concluded that shellac coated dosage forms can be co-administered with alcohol beverages containing ≤ 5% with no effect of alcohol on the shellac coat.rnPellets coated with shellac sodium salts, showed higher release rates than pellets coated with shellac as ammonium salt forms. rn

Biochemische Untersuchungen des Lichtsammlerprotein (LHCP) im Komplex mit seinem Chaperon, dem plastidären Signalerkennungspartikel cpSRP

Das Lichtsammlerprotein (light harvesting chlorophyll a/b-binding protein, LHCP) ist das Apoprotein des Haupt-Lichtsammelkomplexes (LHCII) und stellt das häufigste Membranprotein der Erde dar. Nicht nur aufgrund seiner Abundanz, sondern auch wegen seiner speziellen Translokation als stark hydrophobes Membranprotein durch hauptsächlich wässrige Milieus von cytosolischen Ribosomen bis in die Thylakoidmembran der Chloroplasten ist der Biogeneseweg dieses Proteins von besonderem Interesse. LHCP ist kernkodiert und wird nach seinem Import in Chloroplasten als Transitkomplex mit dem stromalen Signalerkennungsprotein (cpSRP) zur Thylakoide geleitet. Der cpSRP-Komplex besteht aus dem cpSRP43 mit Chaperonfunktion für das LHCP sowie dem Co-Chaperon cpSRP54, welches eine entscheidende Rolle in der stromalen Zielführung des Transitkomplexes spielt. Sowohl die Proteinkonformation des LHCP während seiner Biogenese als auch der in vivo Faltungsablauf während der Thylakoidinsertion sind noch völlig unklar. Mithilfe der Elektronen-paramagnetischen Resonanz (EPR-)Spektroskopie sollte in dieser Arbeit der Faltungszustand des LHCP im Transitkomplex mit dem cpSRP oder in Teilkomplexen davon ermittelt werden.rnKopplungen von cpSRP43 und LHCP bestätigten, dass das Chaperon als Minimaleinheit zur quantitativen Solubilisierung des Membranproteins genügt. Gelfiltrationschromatographische (GFC-) Untersuchungen solcher Komplexe wiesen jedoch mit einem apparenten MW von ≥ 600 kDa ein sehr hochmolekulares Laufverhalten auf. Variierende Proteinstöchiometrien im Komplex zeigten in densitometrischen Auswertungen eine undefinierte Aggregation. Zusätze von Agenzien zur Vermeidung unspezifischer Wechselwirkungen wie z.B. Detergentien oder auch Salzzugabe zeigten keinen Einfluss auf die Aggregate. Volllängen-Transitkomplexe dagegen wiesen trotz unterschiedlichem Angebot von Einzelproteinen reproduzierbar definierte Stöchiometrien auf. Diese zeigten eine LHCP:cpSRP43-Stöchiometrie von 1,25. Dennoch hatten diese Komplexe mit einem apparenten MW von > 300 kDa einen mindestens dimeren Assemblierungsgrad. Eine Voraussetzung für eindeutige EPR-spektroskopische Distanzmessungen zwischen definierten Positionen im LHCP ist jedoch dessen monomolekularisiertes Vorliegen im Chaperonkomplex. Die Darstellung von ternären Transitkomplexen mit einem zu erwartenden apparenten MW von ~175 kDa war auch durch Zusatz verschiedener Proteinaggregationshemmer nicht möglich. Transitkomplexe mit einer verkürzten Version des cpSRP54 zeigten schließlich eine definierte 1:1-Komplexstöchiometrie bei gleichzeitiger polydisperser Komplexzusammensetzung. Es konnten ~60% dieser sogenannten 54M-Transitkomplexe nach GFC-Daten und densitometrischer Auswertung als potentiell ternär eingeschätzt werden. Darüber hinaus gelang es solche Ansätze durch GFC-Fraktionierung zusätzlich von oligomerisierten Spezies aufzureinigen. Dennoch zeigten die Präparate vor GFC-Fraktionierung ein (noch) zu hohes Aggregationssignal im Hintergrund und nach Fraktionierung ein zu schwaches Signal, um eine eindeutige Aussage der EPR-Daten zuzulassen. Dennoch bietet dieses ausgearbeitete Komplexbildungsprotoll in Verbindung mit der Verwendung von verkürztem cpSRP54 eine solide Basis, um weitere Versuche zu EPR-Messungen an cpSRP-gebundenem LHCP durchzuführen. rn

Synthesis, properties and application of polyphenylene phosphonium salts

The central objective of this work was to generate weakly coordinating cations of unprecedented molecular size providing an inherently stable hydrophobic shell around a central charge. It was hypothesized that divergent dendritic growth by means of thermal [4+2] Diels-Alder cycloaddition might represent a feasible synthetic method to circumvent steric constraints and enable a drastic increase in cation size.rnThis initial proposition could be verified: applying the divergent dendrimer synthesis to an ethynyl-functionalized tetraphenylphosphonium derivative afforded monodisperse cations with precisely nanoscopic dimensions for the first time. Furthermore, the versatile nature of the applied cascade reactions enabled a throughout flexible design and structural tuning of the desired target cations. The specific surface functionalization as well as the implementation of triazolyl-moieties within the dendrimer scaffold could be addressed by sophisticated variation of the employed building block units (see chapter 3). rnDue to the steric screening provided by their large, hydrophobic and shape-persistent polyphenylene shells, rigidly dendronized cations proved more weakly coordinating compared to their non-dendronized analogues. This hypothesis has been experimentally confirmed by means of dielectric spectroscopy (see chapter 4). It was demonstrated for a series of dendronized borate salts that the degree of ion dissociation increased with the size of the cations. The utilization of the very large phosphonium cations developed within this work almost achieved to separate the charge carriers about the Bjerrum length in solvents of low polarity, which was reflected by approaching near quantitative ion dissociation even at room temperature. In addition to effect the electrolyte behavior in solution, the steric enlargement of ions could be visualized by means of several crystal structure analyses. Thus an insight into lattice packing under the effect of extraordinary large cations could be gathered. rnAn essential theme of this work focused on the application of benzylphosphonium salts in the classical Wittig reaction, where the concept of dendronization served as synthetic means to introduce an exceptionally large polyphenylene substituent at the -position. The straightforward influence of this unprecedented bulky group on the Wittig stereochemistry was investigated by NMR-analysis of the resulting alkenes. Based on the obtained data a valuable explanation for the origin of the observed selectivity was brought in line with the up-to-date operating [2+2] cycloaddition mechanism. Furthermore, a reliable synthesis protocol for unsymmetrically substituted polyphenylene alkenes and stilbenes was established by the design of custom-built polyphenylene precursors (see chapter 5).rnFinally, fundamental experiments to functionalize a polymer chain with sterically shielded ionic groups either in the pending or internal position were outlined within this work. Thus, inherently hydrophobic polysalts shall be formed so that future research can invesigate their physical properties with regard to counter ion condensation and charge carrier mobility.rnIn summary, this work demonstrates how the principles of dendrimer chemistry can be applied to modify and specifically tailor the properties of salts. The numerously synthesized dendrimer-ions shown herein represent a versatile interface between classic organic and inorganic electrolytes, and defined macromolecular structures in the nanometer-scale. Furthermore the particular value of polyphenylene dendrimers in terms of a broad applicability was illustrated. This work accomplished in an interdisciplinary manner to give answer to various questions such as structural modification of ions, the resulting influence on the electrolyte behavior, as well as the stereochemical control of organic syntheses via polyphenylene phosphonium salts. rn

Studio dell'attività idrolitica di glucomannano ad opera di alcuni preparati enzimatici industriali

Over the last few decades, polysaccharides have gained increasing attention in the biomedical and drug delivery fields. Among them, glucomannan (GM) has become a particularly interesting polymer in the nutraceutical, pharmaceutical and cosmeceutical field, however the high molecular weight of this natural polymer is the cause of the limits to its application that reflected in a poor solubility in water.Reduce the molecular weight could improve its use and at the same time does not eliminate its properties. In this study, we investigated the ability of enzymes to hydrolyze the polysaccharide structure of glucomannan by two commercial enzymes: Fungamyl Super AX and Celluclast BG. The purpose of the thesis was to identify the enzymatic activity and the process parameters ( pH and temperature) that influence the catalytic activity of the enzymes, the molecular size and the viscosity of products released after enzymatic hydrolysis of glucomannan.

Synthesis of Macrocyclic Polymers Formed via Intramolecular Radical Trap-Assisted Atom Transfer Radical Coupling

The synthesis of cyclic polystyrene (Pst) with an alkoxyamine functionality has been accomplished by intramolecular radical coupling in the presence of a nitroso radical trap Linear alpha,omega-dibrominated polystyrene, produced by the atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) of styrene using a dibrominated initiator, was subjected to chain-end activation via the atom transfer radical coupling (ATRC) process under pseudodilute conditions in the presence of 2-methyl-2-nitrosopropane (MNP). This radical trap-assisted, intramolecular ATRC (RTA-ATRC) produced cyclic polymers in greater than 90% yields possessing < G > values in the 0.8-0.9 range as determined by gel permeation chromatography (GPC). Thermal-induced opening of the cycles, made possible by the incorporated alkoxyamine, resulted in a return to the original apparent molecular weight, further supporting the formation of cyclic polymers in the RTA-ATRC reaction. Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) provided direct confirmation of the cyclic architecture and the incorporation of the nitroso group into the macrocycle RTA-ATRC cyclizations carried out with faster rates of polymer addition into the redox active solution and/or in the presence of a much larger excess of MNP (up to a 250:1 ratio of MNP:C-Br chain end) still yielded cyclic polymers that contained alkoxyamine functionality.

Dimerization of Poly(methyl methacrylate) Chains Using Radical Trap-Assisted Atom Transfer Radical Coupling

End-brominated poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMABr) was prepared by atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) and employed in a series of atom transfer radical coupling (ATRC) and radical trap-assisted ATRC (RTA-ATRG) reactions. When coupling reactions were performed in the absence of a nitroso radical trap-traditional ATRC condition-very little coupling of the PMMA chains was observed, consistent with disproportionation as the major termination pathway for two PMMA chain-end radicals in our reactions. When 2-methyl-2-nitrosopropane (MNP) was used as the radical trap, coupling of the PMMA chains in this attempted RTA-ATRC reaction was again unsuccessful, owing to capping of the PMMA chains with a bulky nitroxide and preventing further coupling. Analogous reactions performed using nitrosobenzene (NBz) as the radical trap showed significant dimerization, as observed by gel permeation chromatography (GPC) by a shift in the apparent molecular weight compared to the PMMABr precursors. The extent of coupling was found to depend on the concentrion of NBz compared to the PMMABr chain ends, as well as the temperature and time of the coupling reaction. To a lesser extent, the concentrations of copper(I) bromide (CuBr), nitrogen ligand (N,N,N',N',N"-pentamethyldiethylenetriamine = PMDETA), and elemental copper (Cu) were also found to play a role in the success of the RTA-ATRC reaction. The highest levels of dimerization were observed when the coupling reaction was carried out at 80 degrees C for 0.5h, with ratio of 1:4:2.5:8:1 equiv of NBz: CuBr:Cu:PMDETA:PMMABr.

Post-translational signal peptide cleavage controls differential epitope recognition in the QP-rich domain of recombinant Theileria parva PIM

The presence of the schizont stage of the obligate intracellular parasites Theileria parva or T. annulata in the cytoplasm of an infected leukocyte results in host cell transformation via a mechanism that has not yet been elucidated. Proteins, secreted by the schizont, or expressed on its surface, are of interest as they can interact with host cell molecules that regulate host cell proliferation and/or survival. The major schizont surface protein is the polymorphic immunodominant molecule, PIM, which contains a large glutamine- and proline-rich domain (QP-rd) that protrudes into the host cell cytoplasm. Analyzing QP-rd generated by in vitro transcription/translation, we found that the signal peptide was efficiently cleaved post-translationally upon addition of T cell lysate or canine pancreatic microsomes, whereas signal peptide cleavage of a control protein only occurred cotranslationally and in the presence of microsomal membranes. The QP-rd of PIM migrated anomalously in SDS-PAGE and removal of the 19 amino acids corresponding to the predicted signal peptide caused a decrease in apparent molecular mass of 24kDa. The molecule was analyzed using monoclonal antibodies that recognize a set of previously defined PIM epitopes. Depending on the presence or the absence of the signal peptide, two conformational states could be demonstrated that are differentially recognized, with N-terminal epitopes becoming readily accessible upon signal peptide removal, and C-terminal epitopes becoming masked. Similar observations were made when the QP-rd of PIM was expressed in bacteria. Our observations could also be of relevance to other schizont proteins. A recent analysis of the proteomes of T. parva and T. annulata revealed the presence of a large family of potentially secreted proteins, characterized by the presence of large stretches of amino acids that are also particularly rich in QP-residues.