Seed production and maturation of Limnocharis flava (L.) Buchenau in the field and glasshouse.

The aquatic herb Limnocharis flava, native to tropical America, is the target of an eradication program in Queensland but little is known about its reproductive biology. Their field and glasshouse studies showed that seedlings exhibited relatively high survival (64%) and that fruits containing over 1000 seeds could be produced on young plants within 46 days, at any time of the year. Mature fruits, follicles and seeds were also buoyant. The authors findings were incorporated into the eradication program and influenced the frequency of infestation monitoring.

Soil type does not affect seed ageing when soil water potential and temperature are controlled

To investigate the effects of soil type on seed persistence in a manner that controlled for location and climate variables, three weed species—Gomphocarpus physocarpus (swan plant), Avena sterilis ssp. ludoviciana (wild oat) and Ligustrum lucidum (broadleaf privet)—were buried for 21 months in three contrasting soils at a single location. Soil type had a significant effect on seed persistence and seedling vigour, but soil water content and temperature varied between soils due to differences in physical and chemical properties. Warmer, wetter conditions favoured shorter persistence. A laboratory-based test was developed to accelerate the rate of seed ageing within soils, using controlled superoptimal temperature and moisture conditions (the soil-specific accelerated ageing test, SSAAT). The SSAAT demonstrated that soil type per se did not influence seed longevity. Moreover, the order in which seeds aged was the same whether aged in the field or SSAAT, with L. lucidum being shortest-lived and A. sterilis being longest-lived of the three species.

Lantana (Lantana camara) Seed Bank Dynamics: Seedling Emergence and Seed Survival.

Seed persistence is poorly quantified for invasive plants of subtropical and tropical environments and Lantana camara, one of the world's worst weeds, is no exception. We investigated germination, seedling emergence, and seed survival of two lantana biotypes (Pink and pink-edged red [PER]) in southeastern Queensland, Australia. Controlled experiments were undertaken in 2002 and repeated in 2004, with treatments comprising two differing environmental regimes (irrigated and natural rainfall) and sowing depths (0 and 2 cm). Seed survival and seedling emergence were significantly affected by all factors (time, biotype, environment, sowing depth, and cohort) (P < 0.001). Seed dormancy varied with treatment (environment, sowing depth, biotype, and cohort) (P < 0.001), but declined rapidly after 6 mo. Significant differential responses by the two biotypes to sowing depth and environment were detected for both seed survival and seedling emergence (P < 0.001). Seed mass was consistently lower in the PER biotype at the population level (P < 0.001), but this variation did not adequately explain the differential responses. Moreover, under natural rainfall the magnitude of the biotype effect was unlikely to result in ecologically significant differences. Seed survival after 36 mo under natural rainfall ranged from 6.8 to 21.3%. Best fit regression analysis of the decline in seed survival over time yielded a five-parameter exponential decay model with a lower asymptote approaching −0.38 (% seed survival = [( 55 − (−0.38)) • e (k • t)] + −0.38; R2 = 88.5%; 9 df). Environmental conditions and burial affected the slope parameter or k value significantly (P < 0.01). Seed survival projections from the model were greatest for buried seeds under natural rainfall (11 yr) and least under irrigation (3 yr). Experimental data and model projections suggest that lantana has a persistent seed bank and this should be considered in management programs, particularly those aimed at eradication.

Comparative seed and dispersal ecology of three exotic subtropical Asparagus species

The genus Asparagus includes at least six invasive species in Australia. Asparagus aethiopicus and A. africanus are invasive in subtropical Australia, and a third species, A. virgatus is naturalized and demonstrates localized spread in south east Queensland. To better understand how the attributes of these species contribute to their invasiveness, we compared fruit and seed traits, germination, seedling emergence, seed survival, and time-to-maturity. We further investigated dispersal ecology of A. africanus, examining the diet of a local frugivore, the figbird (Sphecotheres viridis) and the effect of gut passage on seedling emergence. Overall, A. aethiopicus was superior in germination and emergence, with the highest mean germination (98.8%) and emergence (94.5%) under optimal conditions and higher emergence (mean of 73.3%) across all treatments. In contrast, A. africanus had the lowest germination under optimal conditions (71.7%) and low mean seedling emergence (49.5%), but had fruits with the highest relative yield (ratio of dry pulp to fruit fresh weight) that were favored by a local frugivore. Figbirds consumed large numbers of A. africanus fruits (~30% of all non-Ficus fruits), and seedling germination was not significantly affected by gut passage compared to unprocessed fruits. Asparagus virgatus germinated poorly under cool, light conditions (1.4%) despite a high optimum mean (95.0%) and had low mean performance across emergence treatments (36.3%). The species also had fruits with a low pulp return for frugivores. For all species, seed survival declined rapidly in the first 12 mo and fell to < 3.2% viability at 36 mo. On the basis of the traits considered, A. virgatus is unlikely to have the invasive potential of its congeners. Uniformly short seed survival times suggest that weed managers do not have to contend with a substantial persistent soil-stored seed bank, but frugivore-mediated dispersal beyond existing infestations will present a considerable management challenge.

Seed persistence of the invasive aquatic plant, Gymnocoronis spilanthoides (Asteraceae)

Seed persistence of Gymnocoronis spilanthoides (D.Don) DC.; Asteraceae (Senegal tea), a serious weed of freshwater habitats, was examined in relation to burial status and different soil moisture regimes over a 3-year period. Seeds were found to be highly persistent, especially when buried. At the end of the experiment, 42.0%, 27.3% and 61.4% of buried seeds were viable following maintenance at field capacity, water logged and fluctuating (cycles of 1 week at field capacity followed by 3 weeks’ drying down) soil moisture conditions, respectively. Comparable viability values for surface-situated seeds were ~3% over all soil moisture regimes. Predicted times to1% viability are 16.2 years for buried seed and 3.8 years for surface-situated seed. Persistence was attributed primarily to the absence of light, a near-obligate requirement for germination in this species, although secondary dormancy was induced in some seeds. Previous work has demonstrated low fecundity in field populations of G. spilanthoides, which suggests that soil seed banks may not be particularly large. However, high levels of seed persistence, combined with ostensibly effective dispersal mechanisms, indicate that this weed may prove a difficult target for regional or state-wide eradication.

Resin-foraging by colonies of Trigona sapiens and T. hockingsi (Hymenoptera: Apidae, Meliponini) and consequent seed dispersal of Corymbia torelliana (Myrtaceae).

Resins are a critical resource for stingless bees and resin-collecting bees act as seed dispersers in tropical plants. We describe the diurnal foraging patterns of colonies of Trigona sapiens and T. hockingsi on resin and pollen. We also document patterns of waste removal and seed dispersal of Corymbia torelliana. At most, only 10% of foragers collected resin or dispersed seed. Nevertheless, bees dispersed 1-3 seeds outside the nest per 5 minutes, and 38-114 seeds per day for each nest. The proportion of returning bees carrying pollen was highest in the morning for both species. The proportion of foragers returning with resin loads showed no significant diurnal variation in any season. Waste removal activity peaked in the afternoon for T. sapiens and in the morning for T. hockingsi. Seed removal peaked in the afternoon in one year only for T. sapiens. Bees dispersed thousands of seeds of C. torelliana over the season even though only a small proportion of the colony was engaged in seed transport.

Germination, emergence, and persistence of Sonchus oleraceus, a major crop weed in subtropical Australia.

Sonchus oleraceus (common sowthistle) is a dominant weed and has increased in prevalence in conservation cropping systems of the subtropical grain region of Australia. Four experiments were undertaken to define the environmental factors that favor its germination, emergence, and seed persistence. Seeds were germinated at constant temperatures between 5 and 35C and water potentials between 0 and -1.4 MPa. The maximum germination rate of 86-100% occurred at 0 and -0.2 MPa, irrespective of the temperature when exposed to light (12 h photoperiod light/dark), but the germination rate was reduced by 72% without light. At water potentials of -0.6 to -0.8 MPa, the germination rate was reduced substantially by higher temperatures; no seed germinated at a water potential >-1.0 MPa. Emergence and seed persistence were measured over 30 months following seed burial at 0 (surface), 1, 2, 5, and 10 cm depths in large pots that were buried in a south-eastern Queensland field. Seedlings emerged readily from the surface and 1 cm depth, with no emergence from below the 2 cm depth. The seedlings emerged during any season following rain but, predominantly, within 6 months of planting. Seed persistence was short-term on the soil surface, with 2% of seeds remaining after 6 months, but it increased with the burial depth, with 12% remaining after 30 months at 10 cm. Thus, a minimal seed burial depth with reduced tillage and increased surface soil water with stubble retention has favored the proliferation of this weed in any season in a subtropical environment. However, diligent management without seed replenishment will greatly reduce this weed problem within a short period.

The effect of foliar sprays of the synthetic auxin 3-5-6 TPA, on fruit drop, fruit size and seed development in three lychee (Litchi chinensis) cultivars: Tai So, Fay Zee Sui and Kwai Mai Pink.

Fruit drop in lychee can cause major yield losses in Australia, the severity varying with cultivar and season. Research in China, South Africa and Israel has demonstrated the potential for synthetic auxins used as foliar sprays to reduce fruit drop in lychee. Trials were initiated in Australia to test the efficacy of the synthetic auxin, 3-5-6 Trichloro-2-phridyl-oxyacetic acid (3-5-6 TPA) at 50 ppm on the cultivars Tai So, Fay Zee Sui and Kwai Mai Pink. Results indicate that in most cases the TPA reduced natural fruit drop however the size of the fruit at the time of application affects the response and the ideal application time varies with cultivar; approximately 13 mm fruit length in 'Kwai Mai Pink', 20 mm in 'Fay Zee Sui' and 27 mm in 'Tai So'. If applied too early in 'Tai So', it caused an increase in fruit drop. The TPA was most effective when natural fruit drop was high, reducing fruit drop from 74.7 to 34.9% in 'Kwai Mai Pink' and least effective when natural fruit drop was low. An increase in the percentage of fruit with poorly developed (chicken tongue) seed and slightly larger fruit size was also observed in treated trees.

Emergence and seed persistence of Echinochloa colona, Urochloa panicoides and Hibiscus trionum in the sub-tropical environment of north-eastern Australia.

Better understanding of seed-bank dynamics of Echinochloa colona, Urochloa panicoides and Hibiscus trionum, major crop weeds in sub-tropical Australia, was needed to improve weed control. Emergence patterns and seed persistence were investigated, with viable seeds sown at different depths in large in-ground pots. Seedlings of all species emerged between October and March when mean soil temperatures were 21-23C. However, E. colona emerged as a series of flushes predominantly in the first year, with most seedlings emerging from 0-2 cm. Urochloa panicoides emerged mostly as a single large flush in the first two years, with most seedlings emerging from 5 cm. Hibiscus trionum emerged as a series of flushes over three seasons, initially with majority from 5 cm and then 0-2 cm in the later seasons. Longevity of the grass seed was short, with <5% remaining after burial at 0-2 cm for 24 months. In contrast, 38% of H. trionum seeds remained viable after the same period. Persistence of all species increased significantly with burial depth. These data highlight that management strategies need to be tailored for each species, particularly relating to the need for monitoring, application times for control tactics, impact of tillage, and time needed to reduce the seed-bank to low numbers.

Wet-dry cycling extends seed persistence by re-instating antioxidant capacity

Seeds in the field experience wet-dry cycling that is akin to the well-studied commercial process of seed priming in which seeds are hydrated and then re-dried to standardise their germination characteristics. To investigate whether the persistence (defined as in situ longevity) and antioxidant capacity of seeds are influenced by wet-dry cycling, seeds of the global agronomic weed Avena sterilis ssp. ludoviciana were subjected to (1) controlled ageing at 60% relative humidity and 53.5°C for 31 days, (2) controlled ageing then priming, or (3) ageing in the field in three soils for 21 months. Changes in seed viability (total germination), mean germination time, seedling vigour (mean seedling length), and the concentrations of the glutathione (GSH) / glutathione disulphide (GSSG) redox couple were recorded over time. As controlled-aged seeds lost viability, GSH levels declined and the relative proportion of GSSG contributing to total glutathione increased, indicative of a failing antioxidant capacity. Subjecting seeds that were aged under controlled conditions to a wet-dry cycle (to −1 MPa) prevented viability loss and increased GSH levels. Field-aged seeds that underwent numerous wet-dry cycles due to natural rainfall maintained high viability and high GSH levels. Thus wet-dry cycles in the field may enhance seed longevity and persistence coincident with re-synthesis of protective compounds such as GSH.

Seed production of Stylosanthes guyanensis. 1. Growth and development.

The pattern of growth and development of seed crops of stylo (Stylosanthes guyanensis) was derived from measurements made on experimental and commercial crops in north Queensland. The three cultivars Cook, Endeavour, and Schofield differed appreciably only in the timetable of their development. Each had distinct successive phases of vegetative and reproductive development culminating in total annual seed production of 700-800 kg ha-1 from a healthy closed canopy, the main recorded cause of reduced production being the disease Botrytis sp. In a healthy crop of Cook, the peak quantity of standing seed represented almost 90 per cent of the total accountable seed, and the rise to and decline from this peak proceeded at rates of the order of 3-4 per cent per day. It is deduced that, although there appears to be little potential for either increase in overall production or improvement in synchronization or retention characteristics beyond that currently attained by a closed canopy of healthy plants, there is scope for an increase in the efficiency of recovery of standing seed. Maximum recovery will be achieved through attention to choice of time of harvest, presentation of a minimum amount of extraneous vegetation to the harvester, and improvement in harvester separation.

Seed production of Stylosanthes guyanensis. 2. The consequences of defoliation.

The consequences of defoliation on seed production of stylo (Stylosanthes guyanensis) were examined in field experiments at Walkamin in north Queensland. The practical aim of defoliation is to present a level uncompacted crop canopy to the harvester without a reduction in the quantity of seed carried at harvest ripeness. It was concluded that the latest date at which defoliation is reasonably certain to achieve its objectives is about four weeks before first flower initiation. In north Queensland, this means late February for cvv. Cook and Endeavour and early April for cv. Schofield. The results suggest that development of the population of individual shoots must be synchronized to produce the highest peaks of standing seed; that this is best achieved by ensuring that a closed crop canopy with a ceiling shoot population exists at the time of first flower initiation; and that poorly synchronized shoot development is a consequence of defoliating too late and a cause of reduced seed production.

Seed production of Stylosanthes guyanensis. 3. Effects of pre-harvest desiccation.

Strips within commercial crops of Stylosanthes guyanensis in the Mareeba district of north Queensland were sprayed with diquat 4, 6 and 10 days before harvest and compared with unsprayed strips. Pre-harvest desiccation made combine harvesting easier, but did not increase harvest yield. Where seed formation and maturation was still possible, desiccation prevented this without substantially increasing the loss of seed to the ground; increased harvest efficiency was thus offset by a diminished quantity of standing seed. However, where there was little or no further potential for seed development, diquat had virtually no effect on the quantity of standing seed or harvest efficiency. It was concluded that the results warranted neither recommendation nor further evaluation of preharvest desiccation of S. guyanensis seed crops.

Effects of stage of defoliation on seed production and growth of Stylosanthes humilis.

Stylosanthes humilis swards grown at Brisbane in irrigated boxes were defoliated (about 60 per cent removal of tops) at floral initiation, first flower appearance, or advanced flowering stages ; seed yield was 45, 16, and 14 per cent respectively of seed yield in undefoliated swards. Decreased yields were primarily due to poor seed set of florets, were also associated with reduced inflorescence density and floret number per inflorescence, and occurred despite increases (in some defoliation treatments) in seed size, leaf growth rate, and differentiation of leaves and branches. Total seasonal plant growth was independent of defoliation treatment.

UWA00125 Weed Seed Wizard

The aim of this project is to further develop, improve and validate the Weed Seed Wizard, the weed seedbank management tool that was developed in the Weed CRC and to encourage its adoption by researchers, growers and consultants. The focus of the first phase of the project (Phase One) will be on calibrating and validating the model against experimental biological data and trial and paddock monitoring results, collected from published scientific literature, previous studies and ongoing trials and experiments.