GREBP, un nouveau facteur de transcription contrôlant l’expression de la guanylate cyclase A, récepteur de l’ANP, via l’élément de réponse au cGMP

La découverte du système des peptides natriurétiques (NP), au début des années 80, fut une découverte majeure qui révéla le rôle endocrinien du cœur. Les connaissances sur la relaxation vasculaire, la diurèse et la natriurèse provoquées par ce système ont évolué vers un niveau de complexité insoupçonné à cette époque. Nous savons à présent que les NP sont impliqués dans plusieurs autres mécanismes dont la prolifération cellulaire, l’apoptose, l’inhibition du système rénine-angiotensine-aldostérone (RAAS) et le métabolisme des adipocytes. Le métabolisme des lipides est maintenant devenu une cible de choix dans la lutte contre l’obésité. Cette condition aux proportions pandémiques est un facteur de risque majeur dans l’apparition de l’hypertension et du syndrome métabolique (MetS). La compréhension des mécanismes et des défauts de la voie des NP pourrait avoir un impact positif sur le contrôle du MetS et de l’hypertension. L’expression du récepteur des peptides natriuretiques de type 1 (NPR1/GCA) est contrôlée par plusieurs agents incluant son propre ligand, le peptide natriurétique de l’oreillette (ANP). La découverte d’une boucle de retro-inhibition, dans les années 90, a été un événement majeur dans le domaine des NP. En effet, suite à une stimulation à l’ANP, le NPR1/GCA peut inhiber l’activité transcriptionnelle de son propre gène par un mécanisme dépendant du cGMP. Notre groupe a identifié un élément cis-régulateur responsable de cette sensibilité au cGMP et mon projet consistait à identifier la ou les protéine(s) liant cet élément de réponse au cGMP (cGMP-RE). Nous avons identifié un clone liant le cGMP-RE en utilisant la technique du simple hybride chez la levure et une banque d’ADN complémentaire (ADNc) de rein humain. Ce clone provient d’un ADNc de 1083-bp dont le gène est localisé sur le chromosome 1 humain (1p33.36) et codant pour une protéine dont la fonction était inconnue jusqu’ici. Nous avons nommé cette nouvelle protéine GREBP en raison de sa fonction de cGMP Response Element Binding Protein. Des essais de liaison à l’ADN ont montré que cette protéine possède une affinité 18 fois plus élevée pour le cGMP-RE que le contrôle, tandis que des expériences de retard sur gel (EMSA) ont confirmé la spécificité des interactions protéine-ADN. De plus, l’immuno-précipitation de la chromatine (ChIP) a prouvé que GREBP lie le cGMP-RE dans des conditions physiologiques. La liaison de GREBP au cGMP-RE inhibe l’expression du gène rapporteur luciférase sous contrôle du promoteur de npr1/gca. L’inhibition de GREBP à l’aide d’ARN interférant active le promoteur de npr1/gca. Dans les cellules NCI-H295R, l’ANP stimule l’expression de grebp de 60% après seulement 3 heures et inhibe l’expression de npr1/gca de 30%. GREBP est une protéine nucléaire surtout exprimée dans le cœur et ayant le facteur eIF3F comme partenaire. Les variations nucléotidiques du gène sont plus fréquentes chez les patients hypertendus que chez des patients normotendus ou hypertendus souffrant de MetS. Nous rapportons ici l’existence d’un gène spécifique à l’humain qui agit comme répresseur transcriptionnel de npr1/gca et potentiellement impliqué dans le développement de l’hypertension.

Analyse des protéines cellulaires incorporées dans les particules matures du virus de l’Herpès simplex de type 1

Les virus exploitent la machinerie cellulaire de l’hôte de façon très variée et plusieurs types vont même jusqu’à incorporer certaines protéines cellulaires. Nous avons récemment effectué la première analyse protéomique du virion mature de l’Herpès simplex de type 1 (HSV-1), ce qui nous a permis de déterminer que jusqu’à 49 protéines cellulaires différentes se retrouvaient dans ce virus (Loret, S. et al. (2008). "Comprehensive characterization of extracellular herpes simplex virus type 1 virions." J Virol 82(17): 8605-18.). Afin de déterminer leur importance dans le cycle de réplication d’HSV-1, nous avons mis au point un système de criblage nous permettant de quantifier le virus produit et relâché dans le milieu extracellulaire en utilisant un virus marqué à la GFP ainsi que des petits ARN interférents (pARNi) ciblant spécifiquement ces protéines cellulaires. Cette approche nous a permis de démontrer que 17 des protéines identifiées précédemment jouaient un rôle critique dans la réplication d’HSV-1, suggérant ainsi que leur incorporation dans le virus n’est pas aléatoire. Nous avons ensuite examiné le rôle d’une de ces protéines, DDX3X (DEAD (Asp-Glu-Ala-Asp) box polypeptide 3, X-linked), une protéine multifonctionnelle connue pour son implication dans les cycles de réplication de plusieurs virus humains. À l’aide de pARNi ainsi que de différentes lignées cellulaires, dont une lignée DDX3X thermosensible, nous avons démontré que l’inhibition de DDX3X résultait en une diminution du nombre de capsides intracellulaires et induisait une importante diminution de l’expression des gènes viraux. Nous avons aussi démontré que la fraction de DDX3X incorporée dans le virion contribuait activement au cycle infectieux d’HSV-1. Ces résultats confirment l’intérêt de notre approche afin d’étudier les interactions hôte-pathogène en plus de démontrer la contribution des protéines cellulaires incorporées à HSV-1 dans l’infection virale.

Inhibition of respiratory syncytial virus by nasally administered siRNA modified with F-ANA

Mémoire numérisé par la Division de la gestion de documents et des archives de l'Université de Montréal.

Étude de l’expression de « Bcl-2 modifying factor » (Bmf) et son implication dans la néphropathie diabétique

Objectif : Étudier les mécanismes apoptotiques impliqués dans la néphropathie diabétique en identifiant les gènes responsables de l’apoptose et activés par les espèces réactives de l’oxygène (ROS) dans les cellules de tubules proximaux rénaux (RPTC) de différents modèles diabétiques. Méthodes : Une hybridation par puce à AND a été réalisée sur les ARN extraits à partir de RPTC de souris heterozygotes db/m+, db/db and db/db catalase (CAT)-transgénique (Tg) de 20 semaines. Des expériences de PCR en temps réel et d’immunohistochimie réalisées sur ces modèles et sur le modèle ou le diabète avait été induit par traitement au streptozotocin (STZ) ont permis de valider les gènes apoptotiques identifiés par puce à ADN. Des RPTC immortalisées de rat ont été utilisées pour montrer l’activité de ces gènes apoptotique et la régulation de leur expression. De plus, une étude additionnelle réalisée sur des sections rénales provenant de patients diabétiques et non diabétiques a démontré également une surexpression de ces gènes apoptotiques dans les IRPTC. Résultats: L’expression de Bcl-2-modifying factor (Bmf), une protéine apoptotique, semble augmentée dans les RPTC de souris db/db comparé aux souris contrôles db/m+, ou aux souris db/db CAT-tg. La surexpression de Bmf a également été identifiée dans les RPTC du modèle diabétique STZ. La normalisation de l’hyperglycémie chez ces souris par traitement à l’insuline semble normaliser également l’expression de Bmf. In vitro, la surexpression du cDNA de Bmf dans les RPTC promouvoit l’apoptose et augmente l’activité de caspase 3. La stimulation de RPTC de Rat avec le glucose élevé (25mM de D-glucose) semble augmenter l’expression de Bmf et le traitement de ces cellules avec la roténone, les Diphénylène iodonium, la catalase et l’apocynine semble renverser cette stimulation. L’inhibition de Bmf avec un siRNA semble réduire l’apoptose induite par le glucose élevé. L’expression de Bmf a également été démontrée dans les RPTC de patients diabétiques. Conclusion: Ces résultats ont démontré une surexpression de Bmf dans les RPTC de différents modèles diabétiques et suggèrent son potentiel rôle dans la régulation de l’apoptose et de l’atrophie tubulaire chez les diabétiques.

La protéine accessoire Vpu du VIH-1 inhibe l'activité antivirale des pDCs à travers un processus ILT7-dépendant

Viral protein U (Vpu) is an accessory protein of HIV‐1 that efficiently targets BST2/Tetherin, a cellular restriction factor that acts as molecular anchor impeding the release of various enveloped viruses from the cell surface. The recently discovered natural receptor of BST2 is ILT7, a molecule exclusively expressed at the surface of the professional type 1 interferon (IFN‐1) producing cells, plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs). The interaction between BST2 and ILT7 has been reported to efficiently induce a repression of IFN­‐1 secretion by pDCs. Here, we investigated the impact of Vpu mediated antagonism of BST2, in regards to this newly described immune function of BST2. Using a system of CD4+ T cell lines infected with wild type or Vpu‐deficient HIV-­1 cultured with peripheral blood mononuclear cells or purified pDCs, we report that the presence of Vpu efficiently reduces IFN-­1 production from sensing pDCs. Furthermore, we observed that this Vpu effect is dependent on the availability of BST2 molecules at the surface of the infected cells, since the Vpu's immunoregulation is abrogated when blocking any potential BST2 trans interaction with anti­‐BST2 antibodies. Similarly, depleting ILT7 from pDCs by means of small interfering RNA treatment equally negates the downregulation of pDC IFN-­1 secretion by Vpu. Finally, the use of recombinant soluble ILT7 competes with pDC‐bound ILT7 for the free BST2 and similarly results in high IFN-­1 production, causing an identical phenotype. Overall, our results demonstrate that Vpu heightens ILT7 activation and subsequent repression of IFN‐1 production by pDCs in response to HIV­‐1 infected CD4+ T cells by promoting it's trans interaction with infected T cell bound BST2, through a yet uncharacterized mechanism. By allowing efficient particle release and restraining pDCs antiviral functions, Vpu exerts a double role on BST2 that seems crucial for the replication and dissemination of HIV‐1.

Soft Computing Approach for Optimization of siRNA Efficiency Prediction for Post-transcriptional Gene Silencing

Post-transcriptional gene silencing by RNA interference is mediated by small interfering RNA called siRNA. This gene silencing mechanism can be exploited therapeutically to a wide variety of disease-associated targets, especially in AIDS, neurodegenerative diseases, cholesterol and cancer on mice with the hope of extending these approaches to treat humans. Over the recent past, a significant amount of work has been undertaken to understand the gene silencing mediated by exogenous siRNA. The design of efficient exogenous siRNA sequences is challenging because of many issues related to siRNA. While designing efficient siRNA, target mRNAs must be selected such that their corresponding siRNAs are likely to be efficient against that target and unlikely to accidentally silence other transcripts due to sequence similarity. So before doing gene silencing by siRNAs, it is essential to analyze their off-target effects in addition to their inhibition efficiency against a particular target. Hence designing exogenous siRNA with good knock-down efficiency and target specificity is an area of concern to be addressed. Some methods have been developed already by considering both inhibition efficiency and off-target possibility of siRNA against agene. Out of these methods, only a few have achieved good inhibition efficiency, specificity and sensitivity. The main focus of this thesis is to develop computational methods to optimize the efficiency of siRNA in terms of “inhibition capacity and off-target possibility” against target mRNAs with improved efficacy, which may be useful in the area of gene silencing and drug design for tumor development. This study aims to investigate the currently available siRNA prediction approaches and to devise a better computational approach to tackle the problem of siRNA efficacy by inhibition capacity and off-target possibility. The strength and limitations of the available approaches are investigated and taken into consideration for making improved solution. Thus the approaches proposed in this study extend some of the good scoring previous state of the art techniques by incorporating machine learning and statistical approaches and thermodynamic features like whole stacking energy to improve the prediction accuracy, inhibition efficiency, sensitivity and specificity. Here, we propose one Support Vector Machine (SVM) model, and two Artificial Neural Network (ANN) models for siRNA efficiency prediction. In SVM model, the classification property is used to classify whether the siRNA is efficient or inefficient in silencing a target gene. The first ANNmodel, named siRNA Designer, is used for optimizing the inhibition efficiency of siRNA against target genes. The second ANN model, named Optimized siRNA Designer, OpsiD, produces efficient siRNAs with high inhibition efficiency to degrade target genes with improved sensitivity-specificity, and identifies the off-target knockdown possibility of siRNA against non-target genes. The models are trained and tested against a large data set of siRNA sequences. The validations are conducted using Pearson Correlation Coefficient, Mathews Correlation Coefficient, Receiver Operating Characteristic analysis, Accuracy of prediction, Sensitivity and Specificity. It is found that the approach, OpsiD, is capable of predicting the inhibition capacity of siRNA against a target mRNA with improved results over the state of the art techniques. Also we are able to understand the influence of whole stacking energy on efficiency of siRNA. The model is further improved by including the ability to identify the “off-target possibility” of predicted siRNA on non-target genes. Thus the proposed model, OpsiD, can predict optimized siRNA by considering both “inhibition efficiency on target genes and off-target possibility on non-target genes”, with improved inhibition efficiency, specificity and sensitivity. Since we have taken efforts to optimize the siRNA efficacy in terms of “inhibition efficiency and offtarget possibility”, we hope that the risk of “off-target effect” while doing gene silencing in various bioinformatics fields can be overcome to a great extent. These findings may provide new insights into cancer diagnosis, prognosis and therapy by gene silencing. The approach may be found useful for designing exogenous siRNA for therapeutic applications and gene silencing techniques in different areas of bioinformatics.

Biologische Funktionsanalyse und Identifizierung neuer Substrate der Methyltransferase Dnmt2

Obwohl die DNA Methyltransferase 2 (Dnmt2) hoch konserviert ist und zu der am weitesten verbreiteten eukaryotischen MTase-Familie gehört, ist ihre biologische Funktion nach wie vor unklar. Nachdem lange Zeit keine DNA Methylierungsaktivität nachgewiesen werden konnte, wurde vor einigen Jahren über geringe Mengen an 5-Methylcytosin (5mC) in Retroelementen der “Dnmt2-only”-Organismen D. melanogaster, D. discoideum und E. histolytica berichtet (Kunert et al. 2003; Fisher et al. 2004; Kuhlmann et al. 2005; Phalke et al. 2009). Als kurze Zeit später robuste Methylierung der tRNAAsp durch humane Dnmt2 gezeigt wurde (Goll et al. 2006), wurde zunächst eine Dualspezifität des Enzyms vorgeschlagen (Jeltsch et al. 2006). Neuere Daten zum 5mC-Status verschiedener „Dnmt2-only“-Organismen bilden Anlass für kontroverse Diskussionen über Ausmaß und Bedeutung der DNA Methyltransferaseaktivität von Dnmt2 (Schaefer et al. 2010a; Krauss et al. 2011). Die vorliegende Arbeit konzentriert sich auf die Identifizierung neuer RNA Substrate des Dnmt2-Homologs DnmA aus D. discoideum sowie die biologische Bedeutung der tRNA-Methylierung durch Dnmt2. Wie in anderen Organismen beschrieben, fungiert auch DnmA als tRNAAsp(GUC) MTase in vitro und in vivo. Zusätzlich konnte in vitro tRNAGlu(UUC) als neues Substrat der Dnmt2-Homologe aus D. discoideum und dem Menschen identifiziert werden. In einem Kooperationsprojekt wurde außerdem auch tRNAAsp-Methylierungsaktivität für das Dnmt2-Homolog aus S. pombe (Pmt1) nachgewiesen. Crosslink-RNA-Immunopräzipitationen (RNA-CLIP) mit anschließender Next-Generation-Sequenzierung der mit DnmA assoziierten RNAs zeigen, dass DnmA mit tRNA Fragmenten interagiert, die sich vom Anticodonloop bis in den T-loop erstrecken. Neben der tRNAAsp(GUC) und tRNAGlu(UUC/CUC) sind Fragmente der tRNAGly(GCC) verstärkt angereichert. Inwiefern diese Fragmente eine biologische Funktion haben oder spezifische Degradationsprodukte darstellen, ist noch ungeklärt. Interessanterweise sind von einigen tRNAs wenige Sequenzen von antisense-Fragmenten in den RNA-CLIP Daten zu finden, die etwas kürzer, jedoch exakt komplementär zu den genannten sense-Fragmenten sind. Besonders stark sind diese Fragmente der tRNAGlu(UUC) vertreten. In einem weiteren RNA-CLIP Experiment wurden U-snRNAs, snoRNA und intergenische Sequenzen mit DnmA angereichert. Bei nachfolgenden in vitro Methylierungsstudien konnte ausschließlich die U2-snRNA als potentielles Nicht-tRNA-Substrat der hDnmt2 und DnmA identifiziert werden. Da tRNA Modifikationen im Anticodonloop die Codonerkennung beeinflussen können, wurde ein System etabliert um die Translationseffizienz eines GFP-Reportergens in Wildtyp- und dnmAKO-Zellen zu messen. In D. discoideum wird das Aspartat-Codon GAU ca. zehnmal häufiger genutzt als das GAC Codon, allerdings ist nur eine tRNAAsp(GUC) im Genom der Amöbe kodiert. Aus diesem Grund wurde zusätzlich die Frage adressiert, inwiefern die DnmA-abhängige Methylierung dieser tRNA das „Wobbling“ beeinflusst. Dazu wurde dem Reportergen jeweils eine (GAU)5- und (GAC)5-Leadersequenz vorgeschaltet. Entgegen der Annahme wurde der (GAC)5-Leader in beiden Stämmen etwas effizienter translatiert. Insgesamt zeigte der dnmAKO-Stamm eine leicht erhöhte Translationseffizienz der Reportergene. Vergleichende Analysen zur Aufnahme von Fremd-DNA zeigten signifikant reduzierte Transformationseffizienzen mit einem integrierenden Plasmid in dnmAKO-Zellen. Ein weiterer dnmAKO-Stamm zeigte diesen Effekt jedoch nicht, wobei bei derselben Mutante eine deutlich reduzierte Aufnahme eines extrachromosomalen Plasmids zu verzeichnen war. Untersuchungen zum Einfluss von DnmA auf die Regulation des Retroelements skipper ergaben keinen Zusammenhang zwischen der Generierung kleiner RNAs und der erhöhten Transkription des Retrotransposons in dnmAKO-Zellen (Kuhlmann et al. 2005). Durch Kompensationsversuche sowie Experimente mit einer weiteren dnmAKO-Mutante konnte die Mobilisierung des Retrotransposons nicht eindeutig als DnmA-Funktion eingeordnet werden. In einem weiteren Projekt wurden die Bindung des m5C-bindenden Proteins EhMLBP aus E. histolytica an DNA mittels Rasterkraftmikroskopie abgebildet (Lavi et al. 2006). Neben vermutlich unspezifischen Endbindungsereignissen konnte eine bevorzugte Bindungsstelle des Proteins an LINE DNA (long intersperesed nuclear element) identifiziert werden. Möglicherweise fällt diese mit einem von zwei A/T-reichen Bereichen der LINE DNA zusammen, von denen vermutet wird, dass diese für die Bindung von EhMLBP an DNA von Bedeutung sind. Insgesamt bestätigen die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit die tRNAAsp Methylierungsaktivität als konservierte Dnmt2-Funktion. Darüber hinaus erweitern sie das Substratspektrum der Dnmt2-Methyltransferasen im Bereich der tRNA. Außerdem wird erstmals ein potentielles Nicht-tRNA Substrat vorgeschlagen. Zusätzlich geben neu entdeckte Phänotypen Hinweise auf vielfältige zelluläre Dnmt2-Funktionen.

Induction of the ferritin gene (ftnA) of Escherichia coli by Fe2+–Fur is mediated by reversal of H-NS silencing and is RyhB independent

FtnA is the major iron-storage protein of Escherichia coli accounting for < or = 50% of total cellular iron. The FtnA gene (ftnA) is induced by iron in an Fe(2+)-Fur-dependent fashion. This effect is reportedly mediated by RyhB, the Fe(2+)-Fur-repressed, small, regulatory RNA. However, results presented here show that ftnA iron induction is independent of RyhB and instead involves direct interaction of Fe(2+)-Fur with an 'extended' Fur binding site (containing five tandem Fur boxes) located upstream (-83) of the ftnA promoter. In addition, H-NS acts as a direct repressor of ftnA transcription by binding at multiple sites (I-VI) within, and upstream of, the ftnA promoter. Fur directly competes with H-NS binding at upstream sites (II-IV) and consequently displaces H-NS from the ftnA promoter (sites V-VI) which in turn leads to derepression of ftnA transcription. It is proposed that H-NS binding within the ftnA promoter is facilitated by H-NS occupation of the upstream sites through H-NS oligomerization-induced DNA looping. Consequently, Fur displacement of H-NS from the upstream sites prevents cooperative H-NS binding at the downstream sites within the promoter, thus allowing access to RNA polymerase. This direct activation of ftnA transcription by Fe(2+)-Fur through H-NS antisilencing represents a new mechanism for iron-induced gene expression.

Sustained polymeric delivery of gene silencing antisense ODNs, siRNA, DNAzymes and ribozymes: in vitro and in vivo studies

Small interfering RNA (siRNA), antisense oligonucleotides (ODNs), ribozymes and DNAzymes have emerged as sequence-specific inhibitors of gene expression that may have therapeutic potential in the treatment of a wide range of diseases. Due to their rapid degradation in vivo, the efficacy of naked gene silencing nucleic acids is relatively short lived. The entrapment of these nucleic acids within biodegradable sustained-release delivery systems may improve their stability and reduce the doses required for efficacy. In this study, we have evaluated the potential in vitro and in vivo use of biodegradable poly (d,l-lactide-co-glycolide) copolymer (PLGA) microspheres as sustained delivery devices for ODNs, ribozyme, siRNA and DNA enzymes. In addition, we investigated the release of ODN conjugates bearing 5′-end lipophilic groups. The in vitro sustained release profiles of microsphere-entrapped nucleic acids were dependent on variables such as the type of nucleic acid used, the nature of the lipophilic group, and whether the nucleic acid used was single or double stranded. For in vivo studies, whole body autoradiography was used to monitor the bio-distribution of either free tritium-labelled ODN or that entrapped within PLGA microspheres following subcutaneous administration in Balb-c mice. The majority of the radioactivity associated with free ODN was eliminated within 24 h whereas polymer-released ODN persisted in organs and at the site of administration even after seven days post-administration. Polymer microsphere released ODN exhibited a similar tissue and cellular tropism to the free ODN. Micro-autoradiography analyses of the liver and kidneys showed similar bio-distribution for polymer-released and free ODNs with the majority of radioactivity being concentrated in the proximal convoluted tubules of the kidney and in the Kupffer cells of the liver. These findings suggest that biodegradable PLGA microspheres offer a method for improving the in vivo sustained delivery of gene silencing nucleic acids, and hence are worthy of further investigation as delivery systems for these macromolecules.

Protein phosphatase 2A mediates resensitization of the neurokinin 1 receptor

Activated G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are phosphorylated and interact with beta-arrestins, which mediate desensitization and endocytosis. Endothelin-converting enzyme-1 (ECE-1) degrades neuropeptides in endosomes and can promote recycling. Although endocytosis, dephosphorylation, and recycling are accepted mechanisms of receptor resensitization, a large proportion of desensitized receptors can remain at the cell surface. We investigated whether reactivation of noninternalized, desensitized (phosphorylated) receptors mediates resensitization of the substance P (SP) neurokinin 1 receptor (NK(1)R). Herein, we report a novel mechanism of resensitization by which protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) is recruited to dephosphorylate noninternalized NK(1)R. A desensitizing concentration of SP reduced cell-surface SP binding sites by only 25%, and SP-induced Ca(2+) signals were fully resensitized before cell-surface binding sites started to recover, suggesting resensitization of cell-surface-retained NK(1)R. SP induced association of beta-arrestin1 and PP2A with noninternalized NK(1)R. beta-Arrestin1 small interfering RNA knockdown prevented SP-induced association of cell-surface NK(1)R with PP2A, indicating that beta-arrestin1 mediates this interaction. ECE-1 inhibition, by trapping beta-arrestin1 in endosomes, also impeded SP-induced association of cell-surface NK(1)R with PP2A. Resensitization of NK(1)R signaling required both PP2A and ECE-1 activity. Thus, after stimulation with SP, PP2A interacts with noninternalized NK(1)R and mediates resensitization. PP2A interaction with NK(1)R requires beta-arrestin1. ECE-1 promotes this process by releasing beta-arrestin1 from NK(1)R in endosomes. These findings represent a novel mechanism of PP2A- and ECE-1-dependent resensitization of GPCRs.

Endosomal deubiquitinating enzymes control ubiquitination and down-regulation of protease-activated receptor 2

The E3 ubiquitin ligase c-Cbl ubiquitinates the G protein-coupled receptor protease-activated receptor 2 (PAR(2)), which is required for postendocytic sorting of activated receptors to lysosomes, where degradation terminates signaling. The mechanisms of PAR(2) deubiquitination and its importance in trafficking and signaling of endocytosed PAR(2) are unknown. We report that receptor deubiquitination occurs between early endosomes and lysosomes and involves the endosomal deubiquitinating proteases AMSH and UBPY. Expression of the catalytically inactive mutants, AMSH(D348A) and UBPY(C786S), caused an increase in PAR(2) ubiquitination and trapped the receptor in early endosomes, thereby preventing lysosomal trafficking and degradation. Small interfering RNA knockdown of AMSH or UBPY also impaired deubiquitination, lysosomal trafficking, and degradation of PAR(2). Trapping PAR(2) in endosomes through expression of AMSH(D348A) or UBPY(C786S) did not prolong the association of PAR(2) with beta-arrestin2 or the duration of PAR(2)-induced ERK2 activation. Thus, AMSH and UBPY are essential for trafficking and down-regulation of PAR(2) but not for regulating PAR(2) dissociation from beta-arrestin2 or PAR(2)-mediated ERK2 activation.

Hepatocyte growth factor-regulated tyrosine kinase substrate (HRS) mediates post-endocytic trafficking of protease-activated receptor 2 and calcitonin receptor-like receptor

The E3 ligase c-Cbl ubiquitinates protease-activated receptor 2 (PAR(2)), which is required for post-endocytic sorting of PAR(2) to lysosomes, where degradation arrests signaling. The mechanisms of post-endocytic sorting of ubiquitinated receptors are incompletely understood. Here, we investigated the role of hepatocyte growth factor-regulated tyrosine kinase substrate (HRS), in post-endocytic sorting and signaling of PAR(2). In HEK-PAR(2) cells, PAR(2) activating peptide (PAR(2)-AP) induced PAR(2) trafficking from the cell surface to early endosomes containing endogenous HRS, and then to lysosomes. HRS overexpression or knockdown with small interfering RNA caused formation of enlarged HRS-positive endosomes, where activated PAR(2) and c-Cbl accumulated, and PAR(2) failed to traffic to lysosomes. Overexpression of HRS prevented PAR(2)-AP-induced degradation of PAR(2), as determined by Western blotting. Overexpression of HRS mutant lacking an ubiquitin-binding motif similarly caused retention of PAR(2) in enlarged endosomes. Moreover, HRS overexpression or knockdown caused retention of ubiquitin-resistant PAR(2)Delta14K/R in enlarged HRS-containing endosomes, preventing recycling and resensitization of PAR(2)Delta14K/R. HRS overexpression or knockdown similarly prevented lysosomal trafficking and recycling of calcitonin receptor-like receptor, a non-ubiquitinated receptor that traffics to lysosomes after sustained activation and recycles after transient activation. Thus, HRS plays a critically important role in the post-endocytic sorting of single receptors, PAR(2) and CLR, to both degradative and recycling pathways. This sorting role for HRS is independent of its ubiquitin-interacting motif, and it can regulate trafficking of both ubiquitinated and non-ubiquitinated PAR(2) and non-ubiquitinated CLR. The ultimate sorting decision to degradative or recycling pathways appears to occur downstream from HRS.

Mast cell tryptase controls paracellular permeability of the intestine: role of protease-activated receptor 2 and beta-arrestins

Tight junctions between intestinal epithelial cells prevent ingress of luminal macromolecules and bacteria and protect against inflammation and infection. During stress and inflammation, mast cells mediate increased mucosal permeability by unknown mechanisms. We hypothesized that mast cell tryptase cleaves protease-activated receptor 2 (PAR2) on colonocytes to increase paracellular permeability. Colonocytes expressed PAR2 mRNA and responded to PAR2 agonists with increased [Ca2+]i. Supernatant from degranulated mast cells increased [Ca2+]i in colonocytes, which was prevented by a tryptase inhibitor, and desensitized responses to PAR2 agonist, suggesting PAR2 cleavage. When applied to the basolateral surface of colonocytes, PAR2 agonists and mast cell supernatant decreased transepithelial resistance, increased transepithelial flux of macromolecules, and induced redistribution of tight junction ZO-1 and occludin and perijunctional F-actin. When mast cells were co-cultured with colonocytes, mast cell degranulation increased paracellular permeability of colonocytes. This was prevented by a tryptase inhibitor. We determined the role of ERK1/2 and of beta-arrestins, which recruit ERK1/2 to PAR2 in endosomes and retain ERK1/2 in the cytosol, on PAR2-mediated alterations in permeability. An ERK1/2 inhibitor abolished the effects of PAR2 agonist on permeability and redistribution of F-actin. Down-regulation of beta-arrestins with small interfering RNA inhibited PAR2-induced activation of ERK1/2 and suppressed PAR2-induced changes in permeability. Thus, mast cells signal to colonocytes in a paracrine manner by release of tryptase and activation of PAR2. PAR2 couples to beta-arrestin-dependent activation of ERK1/2, which regulates reorganization of perijunctional F-actin to increase epithelial permeability. These mechanisms may explain the increased epithelial permeability of the intestine during stress and inflammation.

Synaptic vesicle glycoprotein 2A modulates vesicular release and calcium channel function at peripheral sympathetic synapses

Synaptic vesicle glycoprotein (SV)2A is a transmembrane protein found in secretory vesicles and is critical for Ca2+-dependent exocytosis in central neurons, although its mechanism of action remains uncertain. Previous studies have proposed, variously, a role of SV2 in the maintenance and formation of the readily releasable pool (RRP) or in the regulation of Ca2+ responsiveness of primed vesicles. Such previous studies have typically used genetic approaches to ablate SV2 levels; here, we used a strategy involving small interference RNA (siRNA) injection to knockdown solely presynaptic SV2A levels in rat superior cervical ganglion (SCG) neuron synapses. Moreover, we investigated the effects of SV2A knockdown on voltage-dependent Ca2+ channel (VDCC) function in SCG neurons. Thus, we extended the studies of SV2A mechanisms by investigating the effects on vesicular transmitter release and VDCC function in peripheral sympathetic neurons. We first demonstrated an siRNA-mediated SV2A knockdown. We showed that this SV2A knockdown markedly affected presynaptic function, causing an attenuated RRP size, increased paired-pulse depression and delayed RRP recovery after stimulus-dependent depletion. We further demonstrated that the SV2A–siRNA-mediated effects on vesicular release were accompanied by a reduction in VDCC current density in isolated SCG neurons. Together, our data showed that SV2A is required for correct transmitter release at sympathetic neurons. Mechanistically, we demonstrated that presynaptic SV2A: (i) acted to direct normal synaptic transmission by maintaining RRP size, (ii) had a facilitatory role in recovery from synaptic depression, and that (iii) SV2A deficits were associated with aberrant Ca2+ current density, which may contribute to the secretory phenotype in sympathetic peripheral neurons.

Angiotensin type 1 receptor mediates thyroid hormone-induced cardiomyocyte hypertrophy through the Akt/GSK-3 beta/mTOR signaling pathway

Several studies have implicated the renin angiotensin system in the cardiac hypertrophy induced by thyroid hormone. However, whether Angiotensin type 1 receptor (AT(1)R) is critically required to the development of T(3)-induced cardiomyocyte hypertrophy as well as whether the intracellular mechanisms that are triggered by AT(1)R are able to contribute to this hypertrophy model is unknown. To address these questions, we employed a selective small interfering RNA (siRNA, 50 nM) or an AT(1)R blocker (Losartan, 1 mu M) to evaluate the specific role of this receptor in primary cultures of neonatal cardiomyocytes submitted to T(3) (10 nM) treatment. The cardiomyocytes transfected with the AT(1)R siRNA presented reduced mRNA (90%, P < 0.001) and protein (70%, P < 0.001) expression of AT(1)R. The AT(1)R silencing and the AT(1)R blockade totally prevented the T(3)-induced cardiomyocyte hypertrophy, as evidenced by lower mRNA expression of atrial natriuretic factor (66%, P < 0.01) and skeletal alpha-actin (170%, P < 0.01) as well as by reduction in protein synthesis (85%, P < 0.001). The cardiomyocytes treated with T(3) demonstrated a rapid activation of Akt/GSK-3 beta/mTOR signaling pathway, which was completely inhibited by the use of PI3K inhibitors (LY294002, 10 mu M and Wortmannin, 200 nM). In addition, we demonstrated that the AT(1)R mediated the T(3)-induced activation of Akt/GSK-3 beta/mTOR signaling pathway, since the AT(1)R silencing and the AT(1)R blockade attenuated or totally prevented the activation of this signaling pathway. We also reported that local Angiotensin I/II (Ang I/II) levels (120%, P < 0.05) and the AT(1)R expression (180%, P < 0.05) were rapidly increased by T(3) treatment. These data demonstrate for the first time that the AT(1)R is a critical mediator to the T(3)-induced cardiomyocyte hypertrophy as well as to the activation of Akt/GSK-3 beta/mTOR signaling pathway. These results represent a new insight into the mechanism of T(3)-induced cardiomyocyte hypertrophy, indicating that the Ang I/II-AT(1)R-Akt/GSK-3 beta/mTOR pathway corresponds to a potential mediator of the trophic effect exerted by T(3) in cardiomyocytes.