Periodic mechanical stress activates MEK1/2-ERK1/2 mitogenic signals in rat chondrocytes through Src and PLCγ1

The mitogenic effects of periodic mechanical stress on chondrocytes have been studied extensively but the mechanisms whereby chondrocytes sense and respond to periodic mechanical stress remain a matter of debate. We explored the signal transduction pathways of chondrocyte proliferation and matrix synthesis under periodic mechanical stress. In particular, we sought to identify the role of the MEK1/2-ERK1/2 signaling pathway in chondrocyte proliferation and matrix synthesis following cyclic physiologic mechanical compression. Under periodic mechanical stress, both rat chondrocyte proliferation and matrix synthesis were significantly increased (P < 0.05) and were associated with increases in the phosphorylation of Src, PLCγ1, MEK1/2, and ERK1/2 (P < 0.05). Pretreatment with the MEK1/2-ERK1/2 selective inhibitor, PD98059, and shRNA targeted to ERK1/2 reduced periodic mechanical stress-induced chondrocyte proliferation and matrix synthesis (P < 0.05), while the phosphorylation levels of Src-Tyr418 and PLCγ1-Tyr783 were not inhibited. Proliferation, matrix synthesis and phosphorylation of MEK1/2-Ser217/221 and ERK1/2-Thr202/Tyr204 were inhibited after pretreatment with the PLCγ1 inhibitor U73122 in chondrocytes in response to periodic mechanical stress (P < 0.05), while the phosphorylation site of Src-Tyr418 was not affected. Inhibition of Src activity with PP2 and shRNA targeted to Src abrogated chondrocyte proliferation and matrix synthesis (P < 0.05) and attenuated PLCγ1, MEK1/2 and ERK1/2 activation in chondrocytes subjected to periodic mechanical stress (P < 0.05). These findings suggest that periodic mechanical stress promotes chondrocyte proliferation and matrix synthesis in part through the Src-PLCγ1-MEK1/2-ERK1/2 signaling pathway, which links these three important signaling molecules into a mitogenic cascade.

Retinoic acid and cAMP inhibit rat hepatocellular carcinoma cell proliferation and enhance cell differentiation

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the third highest cause of cancer death worldwide. In general, the disease is diagnosed at an advanced stage when potentially curative therapies are no longer feasible. For this reason, it is very important to develop new therapeutic approaches. Retinoic acid (RA) is a natural derivative of vitamin A that regulates important biological processes including cell proliferation and differentiation. In vitro studies have shown that RA is effective in inhibiting growth of HCC cells; however, responsiveness to treatment varies among different HCC cell lines. The objective of the present study was to determine if the combined use of RA (0.1 µM) and cAMP (1 mM), an important second messenger, improves the responsiveness of HCC cells to RA treatment. We evaluated the proliferative behavior of an HCC cell line (HTC) and the expression profile of genes related to cancer signaling pathway (ERK and GSK-3β) and liver differentiation (E-cadherin, connexin 26 (Cx26), and Cx32). RA and cAMP were effective in inhibiting the proliferation of HTC cells independently of combined use. However, when a mixture of RA and cAMP was used, the signals concerning the degree of cell differentiation were increased. As demonstrated by Western blot, the treatment increased E-cadherin, Cx26, Cx32 and Ser9-GSK-3β (inactive form) expression while the expression of Cx43, Tyr216-GSK-3β (active form) and phosphorylated ERK decreased. Furthermore, telomerase activity was inhibited along treatment. Taken together, the results showed that the combined use of RA and cAMP is more effective in inducing differentiation of HTC cells.

Arginine induces GH gene expression by activating NOS/NO signaling in rat isolated hemi-pituitaries

The amino acid arginine (Arg) is a recognized secretagogue of growth hormone (GH), and has been shown to induce GH gene expression. Arg is the natural precursor of nitric oxide (NO), which is known to mediate many of the effects of Arg, such as GH secretion. Arg was also shown to increase calcium influx in pituitary cells, which might contribute to its effects on GH secretion. Although the mechanisms involved in the effects of Arg on GH secretion are well established, little is known about them regarding the control of GH gene expression. We investigated whether the NO pathway and/or calcium are involved in the effects of Arg on GH gene expression in rat isolated pituitaries. To this end, pituitaries from approximately 170 male Wistar rats (~250 g) were removed, divided into two halves, pooled (three hemi-pituitaries) and incubated or not with Arg, as well as with different pharmacological agents. Arg (71 mM), the NO donor sodium nitroprusside (SNP, 1 and 0.1 mM) and a cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) analogue (8-Br-cGMP, 1 mM) increased GH mRNA expression 60 min later. The NO acceptor hemoglobin (0.3 µM) blunted the effect of SNP, and the combined treatment with Arg and L-NAME (a NO synthase (NOS) inhibitor, 55 mM) abolished the stimulatory effect of Arg on GH gene expression. The calcium channel inhibitor nifedipine (3 µM) also abolished Arg-induced GH gene expression. The present study shows that Arg directly induces GH gene expression in hemi-pituitaries isolated from rats, excluding interference from somatostatinergic neurons, which are supposed to be inhibited by Arg. Moreover, the data demonstrate that the NOS/NO signaling pathway and calcium mediate the Arg effects on GH gene expression.

Ischemia preconditioning is neuroprotective in a rat cerebral ischemic injury model through autophagy activation and apoptosis inhibition

Sublethal ischemic preconditioning (IPC) is a powerful inducer of ischemic brain tolerance. However, its underlying mechanisms are still not well understood. In this study, we chose four different IPC paradigms, namely 5 min (5 min duration), 5×5 min (5 min duration, 2 episodes, 15-min interval), 5×5×5 min (5 min duration, 3 episodes, 15-min intervals), and 15 min (15 min duration), and demonstrated that three episodes of 5 min IPC activated autophagy to the greatest extent 24 h after IPC, as evidenced by Beclin expression and LC3-I/II conversion. Autophagic activation was mediated by the tuberous sclerosis type 1 (TSC1)-mTor signal pathway as IPC increased TSC1 but decreased mTor phosphorylation. Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) and hematoxylin and eosin staining confirmed that IPC protected against cerebral ischemic/reperfusion (I/R) injury. Critically, 3-methyladenine, an inhibitor of autophagy, abolished the neuroprotection of IPC and, by contrast, rapamycin, an autophagy inducer, potentiated it. Cleaved caspase-3 expression, neurological scores, and infarct volume in different groups further confirmed the protection of IPC against I/R injury. Taken together, our data indicate that autophagy activation might underlie the protection of IPC against ischemic injury by inhibiting apoptosis.

Stimulated mast cells promote maturation of myocardial microvascular endothelial cell neovessels by modulating the angiopoietin-Tie-2 signaling pathway

Angiopoietin (Ang)-1 and Ang-2 interact in angiogenesis to activate the Tie-2 receptor, which may be involved in new vessel maturation and regression. Mast cells (MCs) are also involved in formation of new blood vessels and angiogenesis. The present study was designed to test whether MCs can mediate angiogenesis in myocardial microvascular endothelial cells (MMVECs). Using a rat MMVEC and MC co-culture system, we observed that Ang-1 protein levels were very low even though its mRNA levels were increased by MCs. Interestingly, MCs were able to enhance migration, proliferation, and capillary-like tube formation, which were associated with suppressed Ang-2 protein expression, but not Tie-2 expression levels. These MCs induced effects that could be reversed by either tryptase inhibitor [N-tosyl-L-lysine chloromethyl ketone (TLCK)] or chymase inhibitor (N-tosyl-L-phenylalanyl chloromethyl ketone), with TLCK showing greater effects. In conclusion, our data indicated that MCs can interrupt neovessel maturation via suppression of the Ang-2/Tie-2 signaling pathway.

Lentiviral-mediated RNAi targeting caspase-3 inhibits apoptosis induced by serum deprivation in rat endplate chondrocytes in vitro

Current studies find that degenerated cartilage endplates (CEP) of vertebrae, with fewer diffusion areas, decrease nutrient supply and accelerate intervertebral disc degeneration. Many more apoptotic cells have been identified in degenerated than in normal endplates, and may be responsible for the degenerated grade. Previous findings suggest that inhibition of apoptosis is one possible approach to improve disc regeneration. It is postulated that inhibition of CEP cell apoptosis may be responsible for the regeneration of endplates. Caspase-3, involved in the execution phase of apoptosis, is a candidate for regulating the apoptotic process. In the present study, CEP cells were incubated in 1% fetal bovine serum. Activated caspases were detected to identify the apoptotic pathway, and apoptosis was quantified by flow cytometry. Lentiviral caspase-3 short hairpin RNA (shRNA) was employed to study its protective effects against serum deprivation. Silencing of caspase-3 expression was quantified by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction and Western blots, and inhibition of apoptosis was quantified by flow cytometry. Serum deprivation increased apoptosis of rat CEP cells through activation of a caspase cascade. Lentiviral caspase-3 shRNA was successfully transduced into CEP cells, and specifically silenced endogenous caspase-3 expression. Surviving cells were protected by the downregulation of caspase-3 expression and activation. Thus, lentiviral caspase-3 shRNA-mediated RNAi successfully silenced endogenous caspase-3 expression, preventing inappropriate or premature apoptosis.

Streptozotocin-induced diabetes mellitus affects lysosomal enzymes in rat liver

It has been previously shown that dextran sulfate administered to diabetic rats accumulates in the liver and kidney, and this could be due to a malfunction of the lysosomal digestive pathway. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the expression and activities of lysosomal enzymes that act upon proteins and sulfated polysaccharides in the livers of diabetic rats. Diabetes mellitus was induced by streptozotocin in 26 male Wistar rats (12 weeks old), while 26 age-matched controls received only vehicle. The livers were removed on either the 10th or the 30th day of the disease, weighed, and used to evaluate the activity, expression, and localization of lysosomal enzymes. A 50-60% decrease in the specific activities of cysteine proteases, especially cathepsin B, was observed in streptozotocin-induced diabetes mellitus. Expression (mRNA) of cathepsins B and L was also decreased on the 10th, but not on the 30th day. Sulfatase decreased 30% on the 30th day, while glycosidases did not vary (or presented a transitory and slight decrease). There were no apparent changes in liver morphology, and immunohistochemistry revealed the presence of cathepsin B in hepatocyte granules. The decrease in sulfatase could be responsible for the dextran sulfate build-up in the diabetic liver, since the action of sulfatase precedes glycosidases in the digestive pathway of sulfated polysaccharides. Our findings suggest that the decreased activities of cathepsins resulted from decreased expression of their genes, and not from general lysosomal failure, because the levels of glycosidases were normal in the diabetic liver.

Pharmacological characterization of the relaxant effect induced by adrenomedullin in rat cavernosal smooth muscle

The aim of the present study was to determine the mechanisms underlying the relaxant effect of adrenomedullin (AM) in rat cavernosal smooth muscle (CSM) and the expression of AM system components in this tissue. Functional assays using standard muscle bath procedures were performed in CSM isolated from male Wistar rats. Protein and mRNA levels of pre-pro-AM, calcitonin receptor-like receptor (CRLR), and Subtypes 1, 2 and 3 of the receptor activity-modifying protein (RAMP) family were assessed by Western immunoblotting and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction, respectively. Nitrate and 6-keto-prostaglandin F1α (6-keto-PGF1α; a stable product of prostacyclin) levels were determined using commercially available kits. Protein and mRNA of AM, CRLR, and RAMP 1, -2, and -3 were detected in rat CSM. Immunohistochemical assays demonstrated that AM and CRLR were expressed in rat CSM. AM relaxed CSM strips in a concentration-dependent manner. AM22-52, a selective antagonist for AM receptors, reduced the relaxation induced by AM. Conversely, CGRP8-37, a selective antagonist for calcitonin gene-related peptide receptors, did not affect AM-induced relaxation. Preincubation of CSM strips with NG-nitro-L-arginine-methyl-ester (L-NAME, nitric oxide synthase inhibitor), 1H-(1,2,4)oxadiazolo[4,3-a]quinoxalin-1-one (ODQ, quanylyl cyclase inhibitor), Rp-8-Br-PET-cGMPS (cGMP-dependent protein kinase inhibitor), SC560 [5-(4-chlorophenyl)-1-(4-methoxyphenyl)-3-trifluoromethyl pyrazole, selective cyclooxygenase-1 inhibitor], and 4-aminopyridine (voltage-dependent K+ channel blocker) reduced AM-induced relaxation. On the other hand, 7-nitroindazole (selective neuronal nitric oxide synthase inhibitor), wortmannin (phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase inhibitor), H89 (protein kinase A inhibitor), SQ22536 [9-(tetrahydro-2-furanyl)-9H-purin-6-amine, adenylate cyclase inhibitor], glibenclamide (selective blocker of ATP-sensitive K+ channels), and apamin (Ca2+-activated channel blocker) did not affect AM-induced relaxation. AM increased nitrate levels and 6-keto-PGF1α in rat CSM. The major new contribution of this research is that it demonstrated expression of AM and its receptor in rat CSM. Moreover, we provided evidence that AM-induced relaxation in this tissue is mediated by AM receptors by a mechanism that involves the nitric oxide-cGMP pathway, a vasodilator prostanoid, and the opening of voltage-dependent K+ channels.

Propofol inhibits burn injury-induced hyperpermeability through an apoptotic signal pathway in microvascular endothelial cells

Recent studies have revealed that an intrinsic apoptotic signaling cascade is involved in vascular hyperpermeability and endothelial barrier dysfunction. Propofol (2,6-diisopropylphenol) has also been reported to inhibit apoptotic signaling by regulating mitochondrial permeability transition pore (mPTP) opening and caspase-3 activation. Here, we investigated whether propofol could alleviate burn serum-induced endothelial hyperpermeability through the inhibition of the intrinsic apoptotic signaling cascade. Rat lung microvascular endothelial cells (RLMVECs) were pretreated with propofol at various concentrations, followed by stimulation with burn serum, obtained from burn-injury rats. Monolayer permeability was determined by transendothelial electrical resistance. Mitochondrial release of cytochrome C was measured by ELISA. Bax and Bcl-2 expression and mitochondrial release of second mitochondrial-derived activator of caspases (smac) were detected by Western blotting. Caspase-3 activity was assessed by fluorometric assay; mitochondrial membrane potential (Δψm) was determined with JC-1 (a potential-sensitive fluorescent dye). Intracellular ATP content was assayed using a commercial kit, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) were measured by dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate (DCFH-DA). Burn serum significantly increased monolayer permeability (P<0.05), and this effect could be inhibited by propofol (P<0.05). Compared with a sham treatment group, intrinsic apoptotic signaling activation - indicated by Bax overexpression, Bcl-2 downregulation, Δψm reduction, decreased intracellular ATP level, increased cytosolic cytochrome C and smac, and caspase-3 activation - was observed in the vehicle group. Propofol not only attenuated these alterations (P<0.05 for all), but also significantly decreased burn-induced ROS production (P<0.05). Propofol attenuated burn-induced RLMVEC monolayer hyperpermeability by regulating the intrinsic apoptotic signaling pathway.

Effet des changements du ratio alimentaire oméga-3/oméga-6 dans un modèle d’infarctus du myocarde reperfusé chez le rat

Une mort cellulaire par apoptose impliquant un processus inflammatoire est observée dans le système limbique, suite à un infarctus du myocarde. Les oméga-3 et ses métabolites, en plus de leurs propriétés bénéfiques pour le système cardiovasculaire, réduisent l’inflammation, contrairement aux oméga-6 qui sont plus pro-inflammatoires. Comme le métabolisme de ces deux acides gras essentiels impliquent les mêmes enzymes, le ratio alimentaire oméga-3/6 aurait donc des impacts importants sur l'état inflammatoire et ainsi indirectement sur l'apoptose. Conséquemment, cette étude a pour but d'évaluer l'effet de différents ratios oméga-3/6 sur la taille de l’infarctus, l’inflammation et l’apoptose dans le système limbique suite à un infarctus du myocarde. Des rats Sprague-Dawley ont été aléatoirement distribués dans trois groupes contenant des ratios 1:1, 1:5 et 5:1 oméga-3/6. Ils ont été nourris pendant 2 semaines, suivie d’une occlusion de l’artère coronaire gauche descendante pendant 40 minutes et d’une période de reperfusion (15 min et 24 h). De hauts ratios d’oméga-3 (5:1 et 1:1) diminuent significativement la taille de l’infarctus de 32 % et augmentent l’activité d’Akt, impliquée dans la voie cardioprotectrice RISK, comparativement au ratio 1:5. Ils diminuent aussi la concentration plasmatique de TNF-D. Dans le système limbique, l’activité de la caspase-3 est augmentée dans la région CA1, après 15 min, et dans les régions du CA1 et du gyrus dentelé (Gd), après 24 h, avec la diète 1:5 en comparaison aux diètes 1:1 et 5:1. L’activité enzymatique de la caspase-8 est augmentée dans le Gd, alors que dans le CA1, il y a une activité plus importante de la caspase-9 aux temps de reperfusion étudiés. Conclusion: Les diètes élevées en oméga-3/oméga-6 réduisent la taille de l'infarctus, l’inflammation et diminuent l’apoptose dans le système limbique après un infarctus du myocarde.

Étude du sommeil et de l’immunocompétence suite à un infarctus aigu du myocarde chez le rat

Plusieurs études ont montré que la perturbation des fonctions du système cardiovasculaire constitue un risque majeur de développement du trouble dépressif chez l'homme. De plus, suite à un infarctus du myocarde, 15-30% de la population développe la dépression majeure dans les 6 à 8 mois suivant cet événement suggérant un lien entre les maladies cardiovasculaires et la dépression. Cette dépression est caractérisée par une série de troubles du sommeil. Approximativement 80% des patients hospitalisés et 70% des malades en consultation externe avec une dépression majeure rapportent des difficultés d’initiation et de maintient du sommeil. Les travaux effectués dans les laboratoires de Roger Godbout et Guy Rousseau ont montré que suite à un infarctus aigu du myocarde chez le rat, on observait de l'anhédonie, de la détresse comportementale et de la mort cellulaire par apoptose dans le système limbique. Cette apoptose suivait un décours spatial et temporel et avait été prévenue par l’administration d’antidépresseurs. De plus, le facteur de nécrose tumorale alpha (TNF-α) serait un composant majeur dans l’activation de la voie extrinsèque conduisant à la mort cellulaire observée dans le système limbique. Les résultats de cette thèse montrent que les rats ayant subi un infarctus du myocarde (IM) présentaient à la fois des troubles du sommeil, de l'anhédonie et de la détresse comportementale comparables à ceux des autres modèles animaux de dépression. Les symptômes de dépression ont été prévenus par l'administration à la fois d'un antidépresseur (escitalopram) et d'un inhibiteur de la synthèse des cytokines proinflammatoires (pentoxifylline). Les troubles du sommeil et l'apoptose avaient aussi été prévenus par l'admistration respective de l'escitalopram et de la pentoxifylline. De plus, les animaux ayant subi un IM présentaient une diminution du nombre de cellules cholinergiques dans le générateur du sommeil paradoxal expliquant en partie la réduction de la durée du sommeil paradoxal observée dans cette thèse. Les animaux ayant subi un IM montraient une augmentation systémique du TNF-α, l'interleukine-1 (IL-1β), et la prostaglandine E2 (PGE2). Le traitement par l'escitalopram bloquait l'augmentation des niveaux plasmatiques du TNF-α, de l'IL-1β, et de la PGE2 sans affecter celui de la corticostérone et de l'IL-6. Finalement, pour la première fois, nous avons mis évidence qu'un traitement autre qu'un antidépresseur (pentoxifylline) pouvait réduire le comportement dépressif dans la dépression post-infarctus du myocarde lorsqu'il est administré quelques minutes avant la période ischémique. Il apparait donc important d’intervenir rapidement chez les patients à la suite d'un IM et ce dès les premiers jours et avant même l’apparition des premiers signes d’insomnie et de dépression. Une combinaison de traitements pharmacologique et comportemental serait une voie intéressante à considérer dans la prise en charge de ces patients.

Rat protease-activated receptor–1 (rPAR1) expression and characterization in Sf9 cells

Connue pour son rôle dans la cascade de coagulation, la thrombine, une protéase à sérine, peut également agir par l’intermédiaire de PAR1, un récepteur activé par protéase et couplé aux protéines G liant le GTP (GPCR). La thrombine se lie et clive l’extrémité N-terminale du PAR1 entre l’Arg41 et la Ser42, exposant une nouvelle extrémité terminale qui agit elle-même comme un ligand. La thrombine et une séquence peptidique de cinq acides aminés, composée des résidus Ser42 à Arg46, nommée PAR1-AP, déclenchent dans diverses cellules de mammifères une réponse intracellulaire comportant une composante calcique. Dans cette étude, le système d’expression par baculovirus dans les cellules Sf9 d'insecte nous a permis d'exprimer le récepteur PAR1 du rat à la surface de ces cellules et de réaliser son couplage fonctionnel à leur signalisation intracellulaire (modèle rPAR1-Sf9). La composante calcique de celle-ci, en réponse au PAR1-AP, a ensuite été étudiée en détail à l’aide de la sonde fluorescente Fura-2 et de plusieurs inhibiteurs agissant sur les canaux calciques ou d'autres éléments de la cascade de signalisation du calcium intracellulaire. Lorsque le milieu extracellulaire contient du calcium (Ca2+), la thrombine ou PAR1-AP déclenchent un signal calcique qui consiste en une augmentation rapide de [Ca2+]i suivi d’un plateau relativement soutenu, puis d'un retour lent vers le niveau de base initial. En l'absence de Ca2+ dans le milieu extracellulaire, l'augmentation initiale rapide de [Ca2+]i est suivie d'un retour rapide vers le [Ca2+]i de base. À l’aide d’inhibiteurs de canaux calciques, tels que le lanthane, la nifédipine et le D-600, l'entrée du calcium du milieu extracellulaire dans les cellules est inhibée, abolissant le plateau soutenu de [Ca2+]i. L’inhibition de la pompe Ca2+-ATPase par la thapsigargine supprime la réponse au PAR1-AP après épuisement des sites de stockage de Ca2+intracellulaire. Le TMB-8 agit de façon discordante quant à l’inhibition de la libération de Ca2+ des sites de stockage intracellulaires. La réponse à PAR1-AP n’est pas affectée par le D-609, un inhibiteur de la phospholipase β. L’inhibition de la protéine kinase C (PKC) par le bisindolylmaléimide induit des oscillations en présence de Ca2+ extracellulaire et atténue fortement le signal calcique en absence de Ca2+ extracellulaire. En présence de Ca2+ extracellulaire, l’activation de la PKC par le PBDu tronque le flux de [Ca2+]i tandis que la réponse calcique est abolie en absence de Ca2+ dans le milieu extracellulaire. Le H-89, un inhibiteur de la protéine kinase A (PKA), cause une prolongation de la durée du plateau de [Ca2+]i dans un milieu riche en calcium et la suppression de la réponse à PAR1-AP lorsque le milieu extracellulaire est dépourvu de Ca2+. Les résultats obtenus nous permettent de conclure que la PKC et possiblement la PKA jouent un rôle critique dans la mobilisation du Ca2+ induite par le PAR1-AP dans le modèle rPAR1-Sf9.

Bone marrow cells differentiation to neurons in the rat brain using Serotonin and GABA:Their role on glutamate receptors, IP3, cAMP and cGMP functional regulation in unilateral Parkinsonism induced by 6-hydroxydopamine

Parkinson's disease is a chronic progressive neurodegenerative movement disorder characterized by a profound and selective loss of nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons. Our findings demonstrated that glutamatergic system is impaired during PD. The evaluations of these damages have important implications in understanding the molecular mechanism underlying motor, cognitive and memory deficits in PD. Our results showed a significant increase of glutamate content in the brain regions of 6- OHDA infused rat compared to control. This increased glutamate content caused an increase in glutamatergic and NMDA receptors function. Glutamate receptor subtypes- NMDAR1, NMDA2B and mGluR5 have differential regulatory role in different brain regions during PD. The second messenger studies confirmed that the changes in the receptor levels alter the IP3, cAMP and cGMP content. The alteration in the second messengers level increased the expression of pro-apoptotic factors - Bax and TNF-α, intercellular protein - α-synuclein and reduced the expression of transcription factor - CREB. These neurofunctional variations are the key contributors to motor and cognitive abnormalities associated with PD. Nestin and GFAP expression study confirmed that 5-HT and GABA induced the differentiation and proliferation of the BMC to neurons and glial cells in the SNpc of rats. We also observed that activated astrocytes are playing a crucial role in the proliferation of transplanted BMC which makes them significant for stem cell-based therapy. Our molecular and behavioural results showed that 5-HT and GABA along with BMC potentiates a restorative effect by reversing the alterations in glutamate receptor binding, gene expression and behaviour abnormality that occur during PD. The therapeutic significance in Parkinson’s disease is of prominence.

Thromboxane A2 inhibition of SKCa after NO synthase block in rat middle cerebral artery

NO/prostanoid independent, EDHF-mediated hyperpolarization and dilation in rat middle cerebral arteries is mediated solely by endothelial cell IK(Ca). However, when the NO-pathway is also active, both SK(Ca) and IK(Ca) contribute to EDHF responses. As the SK(Ca) component can be inhibited by stimulation of thromboxane A(2) (TxA(2)) TP receptors and NO has the potential ability to inhibit thromboxane synthesis, we investigated whether TxA(2) might explain loss of functional input from SK(Ca) during NOS inhibition in cerebral arteries. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH: Rat middle cerebral arteries were mounted in a wire myograph. Endothelium-dependent responses to the PAR2 agonist, SLIGRL were assessed as simultaneous changes in smooth muscle membrane potential and tension. KEY RESULTS: Responses were obtained in the presence of L-NAME as appropriate. Inhibition of TP receptors with either ICI 192,605 or SQ 29,548, did not affect EDHF mediated hyperpolarization and relaxation, but in their presence neither TRAM-34 nor apamin (to block IK(Ca) and SK(Ca) respectively) individually affected the EDHF response. However, in combination they virtually abolished it. Similar effects were obtained in the presence of the thromboxane synthase inhibitor, furegrelate, which additionally revealed an iberiotoxin-sensitive residual EDHF hyperpolarization and relaxation in the combined presence of TRAM-34 and apamin. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: In the rat middle cerebral artery, inhibition of NOS leads to a loss of the SK(Ca) component of EDHF responses. Either antagonism of TP receptors or block of thromboxane synthase restores an input through SK(Ca). These data indicate that NO normally enables SK(Ca) activity in rat middle cerebral arteries.

Protein kinase D isoforms are expressed in rat and mouse primary sensory neurons and are activated by agonists of protease-activated receptor 2

Serine proteases generated during injury and inflammation cleave protease-activated receptor 2 (PAR(2)) on primary sensory neurons to induce neurogenic inflammation and hyperalgesia. Hyperalgesia requires sensitization of transient receptor potential vanilloid (TRPV) ion channels by mechanisms involving phospholipase C and protein kinase C (PKC). The protein kinase D (PKD) serine/threonine kinases are activated by diacylglycerol and PKCs and can phosphorylate TRPV1. Thus, PKDs may participate in novel signal transduction pathways triggered by serine proteases during inflammation and pain. However, it is not known whether PAR(2) activates PKD, and the expression of PKD isoforms by nociceptive neurons is poorly characterized. By using HEK293 cells transfected with PKDs, we found that PAR(2) stimulation promoted plasma membrane translocation and phosphorylation of PKD1, PKD2, and PKD3, indicating activation. This effect was partially dependent on PKCepsilon. By immunofluorescence and confocal microscopy, with antibodies against PKD1/PKD2 and PKD3 and neuronal markers, we found that PKDs were expressed in rat and mouse dorsal root ganglia (DRG) neurons, including nociceptive neurons that expressed TRPV1, PAR(2), and neuropeptides. PAR(2) agonist induced phosphorylation of PKD in cultured DRG neurons, indicating PKD activation. Intraplantar injection of PAR(2) agonist also caused phosphorylation of PKD in neurons of lumbar DRG, confirming activation in vivo. Thus, PKD1, PKD2, and PKD3 are expressed in primary sensory neurons that mediate neurogenic inflammation and pain transmission, and PAR(2) agonists activate PKDs in HEK293 cells and DRG neurons in culture and in intact animals. PKD may be a novel component of a signal transduction pathway for protease-induced activation of nociceptive neurons and an important new target for antiinflammatory and analgesic therapies.