CR1Dmod: A Matlab program to model 1D complex resistivity effects in electrical and electromagnetic surveys

We have constructed a forward modelling code in Matlab, capable of handling several commonly used electrical and electromagnetic methods in a 1D environment. We review the implemented electromagnetic field equations for grounded wires, frequency and transient soundings and present new solutions in the case of a non-magnetic first layer. The CR1Dmod code evaluates the Hankel transforms occurring in the field equations using either the Fast Hankel Transform based on digital filter theory, or a numerical integration scheme applied between the zeros of the Bessel function. A graphical user interface allows easy construction of 1D models and control of the parameters. Modelling results are in agreement with other authors, but the time of computation is less efficient than other available codes. Nevertheless, the CR1Dmod routine handles complex resistivities and offers solutions based on the full EM-equations as well as the quasi-static approximation. Thus, modelling of effects based on changes in the magnetic permeability and the permittivity is also possible.

Falsification and corroboration of conceptual hydrological models using geophysical data

Geophysical data may provide crucial information about hydrological properties, states, and processes that are difficult to obtain by other means. Large data sets can be acquired over widely different scales in a minimally invasive manner and at comparatively low costs, but their effective use in hydrology makes it necessary to understand the fidelity of geophysical models, the assumptions made in their construction, and the links between geophysical and hydrological properties. Geophysics has been applied for groundwater prospecting for almost a century, but it is only in the last 20 years that it is regularly used together with classical hydrological data to build predictive hydrological models. A largely unexplored venue for future work is to use geophysical data to falsify or rank competing conceptual hydrological models. A promising cornerstone for such a model selection strategy is the Bayes factor, but it can only be calculated reliably when considering the main sources of uncertainty throughout the hydrogeophysical parameter estimation process. Most classical geophysical imaging tools tend to favor models with smoothly varying property fields that are at odds with most conceptual hydrological models of interest. It is thus necessary to account for this bias or use alternative approaches in which proposed conceptual models are honored at all steps in the model building process.

Calibrating flood inundation models: methods for assessing model performance

Satellite observed data for flood events have been used to calibrate and validate flood inundation models, providing valuable information on the spatial extent of the flood. Improvements in the resolution of this satellite imagery have enabled indirect remote sensing of water levels by using an underlying LiDAR DEM to extract the water surface elevation at the flood margin. Further to comparison of the spatial extent, this now allows for direct comparison between modelled and observed water surface elevations. Using a 12.5m ERS-1 image of a flood event in 2006 on the River Dee, North Wales, UK, both of these data types are extracted and each assessed for their value in the calibration of flood inundation models. A LiDAR guided snake algorithm is used to extract an outline of the flood from the satellite image. From the extracted outline a binary grid of wet / dry cells is created at the same resolution as the model, using this the spatial extent of the modelled and observed flood can be compared using a measure of fit between the two binary patterns of flooding. Water heights are extracted using points at intervals of approximately 100m along the extracted outline, and the students T-test is used to compare modelled and observed water surface elevations. A LISFLOOD-FP model of the catchment is set up using LiDAR topographic data resampled to the 12.5m resolution of the satellite image, and calibration of the friction parameter in the model is undertaken using each of the two approaches. Comparison between the two approaches highlights the sensitivity of the spatial measure of fit to uncertainty in the observed data and the potential drawbacks of using the spatial extent when parts of the flood are contained by the topography.

Particle filtering in geophysical systems

The application of particle filters in geophysical systems is reviewed. Some background on Bayesian filtering is provided, and the existing methods are discussed. The emphasis is on the methodology, and not so much on the applications themselves. It is shown that direct application of the basic particle filter (i.e., importance sampling using the prior as the importance density) does not work in high-dimensional systems, but several variants are shown to have potential. Approximations to the full problem that try to keep some aspects of the particle filter beyond the Gaussian approximation are also presented and discussed.

An iterative contractive framework for probe methods: LASSO

We present a new iterative approach called Line Adaptation for the Singular Sources Objective (LASSO) to object or shape reconstruction based on the singular sources method (or probe method) for the reconstruction of scatterers from the far-field pattern of scattered acoustic or electromagnetic waves. The scheme is based on the construction of an indicator function given by the scattered field for incident point sources in its source point from the given far-field patterns for plane waves. The indicator function is then used to drive the contraction of a surface which surrounds the unknown scatterers. A stopping criterion for those parts of the surfaces that touch the unknown scatterers is formulated. A splitting approach for the contracting surfaces is formulated, such that scatterers consisting of several separate components can be reconstructed. Convergence of the scheme is shown, and its feasibility is demonstrated using a numerical study with several examples.

Assessment of intercalibration methods for satellite microwave humidity sounders

Three methods for intercalibrating humidity sounding channels are compared to assess their merits and demerits. The methods use the following: (1) natural targets (Antarctica and tropical oceans), (2) zonal average brightness temperatures, and (3) simultaneous nadir overpasses (SNOs). Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit-B instruments onboard the polar-orbiting NOAA 15 and NOAA 16 satellites are used as examples. Antarctica is shown to be useful for identifying some of the instrument problems but less promising for intercalibrating humidity sounders due to the large diurnal variations there. Owing to smaller diurnal cycles over tropical oceans, these are found to be a good target for estimating intersatellite biases. Estimated biases are more resistant to diurnal differences when data from ascending and descending passes are combined. Biases estimated from zonal-averaged brightness temperatures show large seasonal and latitude dependence which could have resulted from diurnal cycle aliasing and scene-radiance dependence of the biases. This method may not be the best for channels with significant surface contributions. We have also tested the impact of clouds on the estimated biases and found that it is not significant, at least for tropical ocean estimates. Biases estimated from SNOs are the least influenced by diurnal cycle aliasing and cloud impacts. However, SNOs cover only relatively small part of the dynamic range of observed brightness temperatures.

Time-lapse geophysical investigations over known archaeological features using electrical resistivity imaging and earth resistance

Electrical methods of geophysical survey are known to produce results that are hard to predict at different times of the year, and under differing weather conditions. This is a problem which can lead to misinterpretation of archaeological features under investigation. The dynamic relationship between a ‘natural’ soil matrix and an archaeological feature is a complex one, which greatly affects the success of the feature’s detection when using active electrical methods of geophysical survey. This study has monitored the gradual variation of measured resistivity over a selection of study areas. By targeting difficult to find, and often ‘missing’ electrical anomalies of known archaeological features, this study has increased the understanding of both the detection and interpretation capabilities of such geophysical surveys. A 16 month time-lapse study over 4 archaeological features has taken place to investigate the aforementioned detection problem across different soils and environments. In addition to the commonly used Twin-Probe earth resistance survey, electrical resistivity imaging (ERI) and quadrature electro-magnetic induction (EMI) were also utilised to explore the problem. Statistical analyses have provided a novel interpretation, which has yielded new insights into how the detection of archaeological features is influenced by the relationship between the target feature and the surrounding ‘natural’ soils. The study has highlighted both the complexity and previous misconceptions around the predictability of the electrical methods. The analysis has confirmed that each site provides an individual and nuanced situation, the variation clearly relating to the composition of the soils (particularly pore size) and the local weather history. The wide range of reasons behind survey success at each specific study site has been revealed. The outcomes have shown that a simplistic model of seasonality is not universally applicable to the electrical detection of archaeological features. This has led to the development of a method for quantifying survey success, enabling a deeper understanding of the unique way in which each site is affected by the interaction of local environmental and geological conditions.

Intercomparison of methods of coupling between convection and large-scale circulation: 1. Comparison over uniform surface conditions

As part of an international intercomparison project, a set of single column models (SCMs) and cloud-resolving models (CRMs) are run under the weak temperature gradient (WTG) method and the damped gravity wave (DGW) method. For each model, the implementation of the WTG or DGW method involves a simulated column which is coupled to a reference state defined with profiles obtained from the same model in radiative-convective equilibrium. The simulated column has the same surface conditions as the reference state and is initialized with profiles from the reference state. We performed systematic comparison of the behavior of different models under a consistent implementation of the WTG method and the DGW method and systematic comparison of the WTG and DGW methods in models with different physics and numerics. CRMs and SCMs produce a variety of behaviors under both WTG and DGW methods. Some of the models reproduce the reference state while others sustain a large-scale circulation which results in either substantially lower or higher precipitation compared to the value of the reference state. CRMs show a fairly linear relationship between precipitation and circulation strength. SCMs display a wider range of behaviors than CRMs. Some SCMs under the WTG method produce zero precipitation. Within an individual SCM, a DGW simulation and a corresponding WTG simulation can produce different signed circulation. When initialized with a dry troposphere, DGW simulations always result in a precipitating equilibrium state. The greatest sensitivities to the initial moisture conditions occur for multiple stable equilibria in some WTG simulations, corresponding to either a dry equilibrium state when initialized as dry or a precipitating equilibrium state when initialized as moist. Multiple equilibria are seen in more WTG simulations for higher SST. In some models, the existence of multiple equilibria is sensitive to some parameters in the WTG calculations.

Intercomparison of methods of coupling between convection and large-scale circulation. 2: Comparison over non-uniform surface conditions

As part of an international intercomparison project, the weak temperature gradient (WTG) and damped gravity wave (DGW) methods are used to parameterize large-scale dynamics in a set of cloud-resolving models (CRMs) and single column models (SCMs). The WTG or DGW method is implemented using a configuration that couples a model to a reference state defined with profiles obtained from the same model in radiative-convective equilibrium. We investigated the sensitivity of each model to changes in SST, given a fixed reference state. We performed a systematic comparison of the WTG and DGW methods in different models, and a systematic comparison of the behavior of those models using the WTG method and the DGW method. The sensitivity to the SST depends on both the large-scale parameterization method and the choice of the cloud model. In general, SCMs display a wider range of behaviors than CRMs. All CRMs using either the WTG or DGW method show an increase of precipitation with SST, while SCMs show sensitivities which are not always monotonic. CRMs using either the WTG or DGW method show a similar relationship between mean precipitation rate and column-relative humidity, while SCMs exhibit a much wider range of behaviors. DGW simulations produce large-scale velocity profiles which are smoother and less top-heavy compared to those produced by the WTG simulations. These large-scale parameterization methods provide a useful tool to identify the impact of parameterization differences on model behavior in the presence of two-way feedback between convection and the large-scale circulation.

Estudo de águas subterrâneas com métodos elétricos na região do semi-árido de Patos - Pb

O Nordeste do Brasil, em particular a região semi-árida do Estado da Paraíba, é muito castigada pelos períodos de grandes estiagens e escassez de recursos hídricos. A água de superfície não supre a demanda da região, portanto, a busca de água subterrânea e sua exploração é uma constante nos programas dos Governos Federal e Estadual. Nesta região, ocorrem geralmente apenas aquíferos aluviais rasos e aquíferos nas fraturas do embasamento cristalino. Tradicionalmente, as fraturas no cristalino são prospectados através de estudos aerofotogramétricos e geoestruturais, com média de 30% de furos secos. O dimensionamento dos aquíferos aluviais é feito através de perfurações sistemática do subsolo, que é uma metodologia muito demorosa e cara. O objetivo deste trabalho é mostrar que o emprego de métodos geofísicos, especialmente os métodos geoelétricos, são eficazes e econômicos para localizar e avaliar áreas promissoras de água subterrânea, tanto nos aquíferos aluviais como nos cristalinos. Neste trabalho, foram aplicados o convencional método da eletroresistividade e o método eletromagnético, ainda pouco usado na prospecção de água subterrânea, em três áreas selecionadas na região semi-árida de Patos - Pb, sendo duas representantes dos aquíferos aluviais e uma representante dos aquíferos cristalinos. Nos aquíferos aluviais, foi determinada a profundidade até o embasamento cristalino através de sondagens elétricas verticais (SEVs), e os respectivos limites laterais foram mapeados com perfilagens de eletroresistividade. Os resultados das SEVs são coerentes com as profundidades obtidas pelas sondagens mecânicas de confirmação mostrando, assim, a aplicabilidade desta metodologia na pesquisa deste tipo de aquífero. No aquífero cristalino, inicialmente determinou-se a orientação geral das zonas fraturadas do embasamento cristalino pela técnica modificada da sondagem elétrica vertical (SEV Radial) e, em seguida, a localização exata em planta das mesmas foram determinadas com perfilagens de eletroresistividade e eletromagnéticas no sistema horizontal coplanar nas frequências 880 Hz e 2640 Hz. Os resultados dos dois métodos utilizados foram satisfatórios, porém, a perfilagem eletromagnética é mais rápida, necessita de menos mão de obra, reduzindo assim os custos de prospecção de água subterrânea no embasamento cristalino.

Métodos geofísicos aplicados a prospecção mineral na região do Igarapé Chega Tudo, Maranhão - Brasil

O presente trabalho de prospecção geofísica abrange o levantamento de uma faixa de direção NW-SE, desde o local denomina do Chatão, à margem direita do rio Gurupi, até 5 km além de Chega Tudo, no estado de Maranhão. Esse levantamento foi feito em travessas perpendiculares àquela faixa, a qual constitui uma extensa zona de falha. Os trabalhos de geofísica de campo, envolvendo os métodos magnético (campo total), cintilómétrico, eletro-resistivo (Schlumberger, Wenner e Half-Schlumberger) e E.M. (Slingram), foram realizados em duas etapas: a) levantamento de reconhecimento em uma área de 22 km², onde foram aplicados magnetometria e cintilometria e b) levantamento de detalhe em uma área de 3,50 km², onde foram aplicados eletro-resistividade e E.M. Os objetivos principais deste trabalho foram determinar e localizar as principais feições estruturais e geo-elétricas associadas às zonas mineralizadas, e selecionar, entre os métodos geofísicos empregados, qual o de melhor poder resolutivo na indicação de veios de quartzo em sub-superfície, possivelmente associados à mineração de ouro. O método magnético indicou uma anomalia principal no lado NE da área de reconhecimento, enquanto que o cintilométrico apresentou somente o valor do "background" da região. Por isso o método cintilométrico não será discutido nesse trabalho. Com os métodos eletro-resistivo e E.M. foram observadas várias anomalias ao longo de toda a área de detalhe. A interpretação dos dados de magnetometria e de eletro-resistividade foi realizada com técnicas computacionais, enquanto que para a dos dados eletromagnéticos foram empregados diagramas de fase. Os resultados apresentam uma estreita correlação das anomalias magnéticas e eletro-resistivas com a zona mineralizada. O método E.M. não apresentou nenhum poder resolutivo, uma vez que detectou anomalias semelhantes dentro e fora das áreas mais promissoras. Todas as anomalias foram confirmadas com furos de sondagem. Considerando-se que a área prospectada apresenta, devido ao difícil acesso, o mesmo grau de dificuldade para realização da pesquisa por métodos diretos (perfuração, poços ou trincheiras), como qualquer outra área similar na região amazônica, os resultados aqui apresentados confirmaram que os métodos magnético e eletro-resistivo podem ser utilizados com sucesso como ferramenta indireta na localização de zonas promissoras à exploração de ouro dentro da zona de falha de Chega Tudo ou em outros ambientes geológicos de semelhantes características.

Integrated Geophysical Investigation of the St. James Fault Complex: A Case Study

We noninvasively detected the characteristics and location of a regional fault in an area of poor bedrock exposure complicated by karst weathering features in the subsurface. Because this regional fault is associated with sinkhole formation, its location is important for hazard avoidance. The bedrock lithologies on either side of the fault trace are similar; hence, we chose an approach that capitalized on the complementary strengths of very low frequency (VLF) electromagnetic, resistivity, and gravity methods. VLF proved most useful as a first-order reconnaissance tool, allowing us to define a narrow target area for further geophysical exploration. Fault-related epikarst was delineated using resistivity. Ultimately, a high-resolution gravity survey and subsequent inverse modeling using the results of the resistivity survey helped to further constrain the location and approximate orientation of the fault. The combined results indicated that the location of the fault trace needed to be adjusted 53 m south of the current published location and was consistent with a north-dipping thrust fault. Additionally, a gravity low south of the fault trace agreed with the location of conductive material from the resistivity and VLF surveys. We interpreted these anomalies to represent enhanced epikarst in the fault footwall. We clearly found that a staged approach involving a progression of methods beginning with a reconnaissance VLF survey, followed by high-resolution gravity and electrical resistivity surveys, can be used to characterize a fault and fault-related karst in an area of poor bedrock surface exposure.