A review of advanced catalyst development for Fischer-Tropsch synthesis of hydrocarbons from biomass derived syn-gas

Fischer-Tropsch synthesis (FTS) is a process which converts syn-gas (H2 and CO) to synthetic liquid fuels and valuable chemicals. Thermal gasification of biomass represents a convenient route to produce syn-gas from intractable materials particularly those derived from waste that are not cost effective to process for use in biocatalytic or other milder catalytic processes. The development of novel catalysts with high activity and selectivity is desirable as it leads to improved quality and value of FTS products. This review paper summarises recent developments in FT-catalyst design with regards to optimising catalyst activity and selectivity towards synthetic fuels. © 2014 the Partner Organisations.

Sistemi Rh/CeO2-Al2O3 per l'ossidazione catalitica del metano

L’ossidazione catalitica parziale (CPO) del metano è un processo di elevato interesse scientifico ed industriale, permettendo la produzione su piccola scala di H2 o la produzione di syngas con un rapporto H2/CO = 2, utile per la produzione di metanolo o la sintesi di Fischer-Tropsch di idrocarburi. Inoltre, si possono raggiungere elevate conversioni del metano e selettività in syngas operando a bassi valori del tempo di contatto, riducendo così le dimensioni dei reattori. Tuttavia, gli elevati flussi e le temperature raggiunte nel letto possono condurre rapidamente alla disattivazione del catalizzatore; pertanto, è necessario lo sviluppo di materiali non soltanto attivi, ma anche stabili nelle condizioni di reazione. Lo scopo di questo lavoro è stato lo sviluppo di catalizzatori a base di Rh e ceria, utilizzati sia come pellets che supportati su una schiuma metallica. In particolare, il lavoro è stato focalizzato sulla sintesi, caratterizzazione ed attività catalitica di materiali Rh-CeO2-Al2O3. La presenza di CeO2 può modificare la dispersione del Rh metallico e la sua stabilità nei confronti della sinterizzazione e della formazione del carbone, mentre la stabilità termica è favorita dalla presenza di Al2O3. Poiché queste proprietà e, di conseguenza, le prestazione catalitiche dipendono dalla dimensioni delle particelle di CeO2 sono stati preparati catalizzatori con diverso contenuto di CeO2 (10 e 20 p/p %) ed utilizzando differenti metodi di preparazione per modularne le proprietà. Le sintesi sono effettuate per coprecipitazione e per sintesi con urea per trattamento micronde-idrotermale. Le prestazione dei catalizzatori in pellets sono state analizzate in un impianto di laboratorio operando a bassi valori del tempo di contatto e modificando la temperatura e la concentrazione della miscela gassosa, i.e. sia in condizioni lontane dall’equilibrio termodinamico che in condizioni prossime a quelle industriali. Un catalizzatore con lo stesso contenuto di Rh ed ottenuto da precursori tipo idrotalcite (HT) è stato utilizzato come riferimento. Per incrementare ulteriormente le prestazioni catalitiche, in particolare il trasferimento del calore lungo il letto catalitico, la migliore composizione individuata delle prove precedenti è stata depositata su pellets di una schiuma metallica (FeCrAlloy). E’ stato utilizzato il metodo dell’elettrosintesi per la deposizione di idrossidi di Rh, Ce e Al, ottenendo dopo calcinazione catalizzatori strutturati. Si è valutato l’effetto dei parametri di sintesi, potenziale applicato e tempo, sulle proprietà catalitiche. Anche in questo caso i risultati sono stati confrontati quelli ottenuti con un catalizzatori di riferimento ottenuti da un precursore HT preparati per elettrosintesi.

Ruolo della composizione e metodo di preparazione nelle proprietà di catalizzatori contenenti cerio per l'ossidazione parziale catalitica del metano

Questo a lavoro di tesi si è incentrato sullo sviluppo di catalizzatori attivi nella reazione di ossidazione parziale catalitica (CPO) del metano per la produzione di idrogeno o/e syngas, con un rapporto ottimale di H2/CO, utile per la produzione idrocarburi attraverso la reazione di Fischer-Tropsch o per l’alimentazione delle fuels cells. La scarsa diffusione di questo processo è da attribuirsi alla mancanza di catalizzatori adatti a resistere agli elevati flussi e alle elevate temperature raggiunte nel letto senza subire processi di disattivazione; pertanto, è necessario lo sviluppo di nuovi catalizzatori non soltanto attivi, ma anche stabili nelle condizioni di reazione. In questa tesi si sono studiati catalizzatori con differenti fasi attive Rh e Ru supportati su CeO2-Al2O3, utilizzati in pellets. L'attenzione di questo lavoro di tesi si è focalizzata sullo studio delle proprietà e del ruolo della fase attiva e del promotore ceria nei catalizzatori. Per questo studio sono stati sintetizzati per coprecipitazione due catalizzatori con ugual concentrazione di cerio ma diversa fase attiva, Rodio e Rutenio e se ne sono studiate le proprietà. Della fase attiva con migliori prestazioni, il Rh, se ne è approfondito lo studio, indagando sulla migliore metodologia di attivazione e sul miglior metodo di sintesi del catalizzatore. Infine, per lo studio dell’effetto del cerio sia nelle proprietà chimico-fisiche che nella attività catalitica, sono stati preparati per coprecipitazione diversi catalizzatori di tipo Rh-CeO2-Al2O3, con un contenuto di cerio variabile ma con ugual concentrazione di fase attiva, cosi come dei campioni di riferimento contenti soltanto ceria o allumina. Questi catalizzatori sono stati testati in severe condizioni e per lunghi tempi di reazione per simulare l’utilizzo industriale ed evidenziarne le caratteristiche.

Mineralogy of chondritic interplanetary dust particles

From a mineralogical survey of approximately 30 chondritic micrometeorites collected from the lower stratosphere and studied in detail using current electron microscopy techniques, it is concluded that these particles represent a unique group of extraterrestrial materials. These micrometeorites differ significantly in form and texture from components of carbonaceous chondrites and contain some mineral assemblages which do not occur in any meteorite class. Electron microscope investigations of chondritic micrometeorites have established that these materials (1) are extraterrestrial in origin, (2) existed in space as small objects, (3) endured minimal alteration by planetary processes since formation, and (4) can suffer minimal pulse heating (<600°C) on entering earth's atmosphere. The probable sources for chondritic interplanetary dust particles (IDPs) are cometary and asteroidal debris and, perhaps to a lesser extent, interstellar regions. These sources have not been conclusively linked to any specific mineralogical subset of IDP, although the chondritic porous (CP) aggregate is considered of likely cometary origin. Chondritic IDPs occur in two predominant mineral assemblages: (1) carbonaceous phases and phyllosilicates and (2) carbonaceous phases and nesosilicates or inosilicates, although particles with both types of silicate assemblages are observed. Olivines, pyroxenes, layer silicates, and carbon-rich phases are the most commonly occurring minerals in many chondritic IDPs. Other phases often observed in variable proportions include sulphides, spinels, metals, metal carbides, carbonates, and minor amounts of sulphates and phosphates. Individual mineral grain sizes range from micrometers (primarily pyroxenes and olivines) to nanometers, with the predominant size for all phases less than 100 nm. Specific mineral characteristics for particular chondritic IDPs provide an indication of processes which may have occurred prior to collection in the earth's stratosphere. For example, pyroxene mineralogy in some chondritic aggregates is consistent with condensation from a vapor phase and, we consider, with condensation in a turbulent solar nebula at relatively low temperatures (<1000°C). Carbonaceous phases present in other CP aggregates have been used to imply low-temperature formation processes such as Fischer-Tropsch synthesis (∼530°C) or carbonization and graphitization (∼315°C). Alteration processes have been implicated in the formation of some layer silicates in CP aggregates and may have involved hydrocryogenic alteration at <0°C. In general, interpretations of transformation processes on submicrometer-size minerals in chondritic IDPs are consistent with formation at a radius equivalent to the asteroid belt or greater during the later stages of solar nebula evolution using currently available models.

Direct conversion of calcium carbonate to C-1-C-3 hydrocarbons

With the objective of investigating the direct conversion of inorganic carbonates such as CaCO3 to hydrocarbons, assisted by transition metal ions, we have carried out studies on CaCO3 in an intimate admixture with iron oxides (FeCaCO) with a wide range of Fe/Ca mole ratios (x), prepared by co-precipitation. The hydrogen reduction of FeCaCO at 673 K gives up to 23% yield of the hydrocarbons CH4, C2H4, C2H6 and C3H8, leaving solid iron residues in the form of iron metal, oxides and carbide particles. The yield of hydrocarbons increases with x and the conversion of hydrocarbons occurs through the formation of CO. While the total yield of hydrocarbons obtained by us is comparable to that in the Fischer-Tropsch synthesis, the selectivity for C-2-C-3 hydrocarbons reported here is noteworthy.

Carbon-carbon bond forming reactions from bis(carbene)-platinum(II) complexes and olefin polymerization and oligomerization using group 4 post-metallocene complexes

A long-standing challenge in transition metal catalysis is selective C–C bond coupling of simple feedstocks, such as carbon monoxide, ethylene or propylene, to yield value-added products. This work describes efforts toward selective C–C bond formation using early- and late-transition metals, which may have important implications for the production of fuels and plastics, as well as many other commodity chemicals.

The industrial Fischer-Tropsch (F-T) process converts synthesis gas (syngas, a mixture of CO + H₂) into a complex mixture of hydrocarbons and oxygenates. Well-defined homogeneous catalysts for F-T may provide greater product selectivity for fuel-range liquid hydrocarbons compared to traditional heterogeneous catalysts. The first part of this work involved the preparation of late-transition metal complexes for use in syngas conversion. We investigated C–C bond forming reactions via carbene coupling using bis(carbene)platinum(II) compounds, which are models for putative metal–carbene intermediates in F-T chemistry. It was found that C–C bond formation could be induced by either (1) chemical reduction of or (2) exogenous phosphine coordination to the platinum(II) starting complexes. These two mild methods afforded different products, constitutional isomers, suggesting that at least two different mechanisms are possible for C–C bond formation from carbene intermediates. These results are encouraging for the development of a multicomponent homogeneous catalysis system for the generation of higher hydrocarbons.

A second avenue of research focused on the design and synthesis of post-metallocene catalysts for olefin polymerization. The polymerization chemistry of a new class of group 4 complexes supported by asymmetric anilide(pyridine)phenolate (NNO) pincer ligands was explored. Unlike typical early transition metal polymerization catalysts, NNO-ligated catalysts produce nearly regiorandom polypropylene, with as many as 30-40 mol % of insertions being 2,1-inserted (versus 1,2-inserted), compared to <1 mol % in most metallocene systems. A survey of model Ti polymerization catalysts suggests that catalyst modification pathways that could affect regioselectivity, such as C–H activation of the anilide ring, cleavage of the amine R-group, or monomer insertion into metal–ligand bonds are unlikely. A parallel investigation of a Ti–amido(pyridine)phenolate polymerization catalyst, which features a five- rather than a six-membered Ti–N chelate ring, but maintained a dianionic NNO motif, revealed that simply maintaining this motif was not enough to produce regioirregular polypropylene; in fact, these experiments seem to indicate that only an intact anilide(pyridine)phenolate ligated-complex will lead to regioirregular polypropylene. As yet, the underlying causes for the unique regioselectivity of anilide(pyridine)phenolate polymerization catalysts remains unknown. Further exploration of NNO-ligated polymerization catalysts could lead to the controlled synthesis of new types of polymer architectures.

Finally, we investigated the reactivity of a known Ti–phenoxy(imine) (Ti-FI) catalyst that has been shown to be very active for ethylene homotrimerization in an effort to upgrade simple feedstocks to liquid hydrocarbon fuels through co-oligomerization of heavy and light olefins. We demonstrated that the Ti-FI catalyst can homo-oligomerize 1-hexene to C₁₂ and C₁₈ alkenes through olefin dimerization and trimerization, respectively. Future work will include kinetic studies to determine monomer selectivity by investigating the relative rates of insertion of light olefins (e.g., ethylene) vs. higher α-olefins, as well as a more detailed mechanistic study of olefin trimerization. Our ultimate goal is to exploit this catalyst in a multi-catalyst system for conversion of simple alkenes into hydrocarbon fuels.

Chelation-enforced metal-arene interactions : insights into substrate binding and catalysis by late transition metal complexes

Understanding and catalyzing chemical reactions requiring multiple electron transfers is an endeavor relevant to many outstanding challenges in the field of chemistry. To study multi-electron reactions, a terphenyl diphosphine framework was designed to support one or more metals in multiple redox states via stabilizing interactions with the central arene of the terphenyl backbone. A variety of unusual compounds and reactions and their relevance toward prominent research efforts in chemistry are the subject of this dissertation.

Chapter 2 introduces the para-terphenyl diphosphine framework and its coordination chemistry with group 10 transition metal centers. Both mononuclear and dinuclear compounds are characterized. In many cases, the metal center(s) are stabilized by the terphenyl central arene. These metal–arene interactions are characterized both statically, in the solid state, and fluxionally, in solution. As a proof-of-principle, a dinickel framework is shown to span multiple redox states, showing that multielectron chemistry can be supported by the coordinatively flexible terphenyl diphosphine.

Chapter 3 presents reactivity of the terphenyl diphosphine when bound to a metal center. Because of the dearomatizing effect of the metal center, the central arene of the ligand is susceptible to reactions that do not normally affect arenes. In particular, Ni-to-arene H-transfer and arene dihydrogenation reactions are presented. Additionally, evidence for reversibility of the Ni-to-arene H-transfer is discussed.

Chapter 4 expands beyond the chelated metal-arene interactions of the previous chapters. A dipalladium(I) terphenyl diphosphine framework is used to bind a variety of exogenous organic ligands including arenes, dienes, heteroarenes, thioethers, and anionic ligands. The compounds are structurally characterized, and many ligands exhibit unprecedented bindng modes across two metal centers. The relative binding affinities are evaluated spectroscopically, and equilibrium binding constants for the examined ligands are determined to span over 13 orders of magnitude. As an application of this framework, mild hydrogenation conditions of bound thiophene are presented.

Chapter 5 studies nickel-mediated C–O bond cleavage of aryl alkyl ethers, a transformation with emerging applications in fields such as lignin biofuels and organic methodology. Other group members have shown the mechanism of C–O bond cleavage of an aryl methyl ether incorporated into a meta-terphenyl diphosphine framework to proceed through β-H elimination of an alkoxide. First, the electronic selectivity of the model system is examined computationally and compared with catalytic systems. The lessons learned from the model system are then applied to isotopic labeling studies for catalytic aryl alkyl ether cleavage under dihydrogen. Results from selective deuteration experiments and mass spectrometry draw a clear analogy between the mechanisms of the model and catalytic systems that does not require dihydrogen for C–O bond cleavage, although dihydrogen is proposed to play a role in catalyst activation and catalytic turnover.

Appendix A presents initial efforts toward heterodinuclear complexes as models for CO dehydrogenase and Fischer Tropsch chemistry. A catechol-incorporating terphenyl diphosphine is reported, and metal complexes thereof are discussed.

Appendix B highlights some structurally characterized terphenyl diphosphine complexes that either do not thematically belong in the research chapters or proved to be difficult to reproduce. These compounds show unusual coordination modes of the terphenyl diphosphine from which other researchers may glean insights.