Achalasia: A review of clinical diagnosis, epidemiology, treatment and outcomes

Achalasia is a neurodegenerative motility disorder of the oesophagus resulting in deranged oesophageal peristalsis and loss of lower oesophageal sphincter function. Historically, annual achalasia incidence rates were believed to be low, approximately 0.5-1.2 per 100000. More recent reports suggest that annual incidence rates have risen to 1.6 per 100000 in some populations. The aetiology of achalasia is still unclear but is likely to be multi-factorial. Suggested causes include environmental or viral exposures resulting in inflammation of the oesophageal myenteric plexus, which elicits an autoimmune response. Risk of achalasia may be elevated in a sub-group of genetically susceptible people. Improvement in the diagnosis of achalasia, through the introduction of high resolution manometry with pressure topography plotting, has resulted in the development of a novel classification system for achalasia. This classification system can evaluate patient prognosis and predict responsiveness to treatment. There is currently much debate over whether pneumatic dilatation is a superior method compared to the Heller's myotomy procedure in the treatment of achalasia. A recent comparative study found equal efficacy, suggesting that patient preference and local expertise should guide the choice. Although achalasia is a relatively rare condition, it carries a risk of complications, including aspiration pneumonia and oesophageal cancer. The risk of both squamous cell carcinoma and adenocarcinoma of the oesophagus is believed to be significantly increased in patients with achalasia, however the absolute excess risk is small. Therefore, it is currently unknown whether a surveillance programme in achalasia patients would be effective or cost-effective.

Epidemiology of MPN: What Do We Know?

The myeloproliferative neoplasms, are characterised by overproduction of myeloid cells. Chronic myeloid leukaemia, polycythaemia vera, essential thrombocythaemia, myelofibrosis and the very rare disorders chronic neutrophilic leukaemia, chronic eosinophilic leukaemia not otherwise specified and mastocytosis are all included in the group. Incidence and prevalence rates reported in the worldwide literature are presented in this review. Survival data on each condition is described. Information on the aetiology of the disorders is discussed including body mass index, diet, smoking and alcohol, allergies, associated medical conditions, occupation and environmental exposures with focus on recent new studies. The aetiology of the myeloproliferative neoplasms remains unknown, and this review of the current state of knowledge highlights the need for further comprehensive research.

Burkholderia cepacia complex epidemiology in persons with cystic fibrosis from Australia and New Zealand

The Burkholderia cepacia complex (Bcc) is a group of significant opportunistic respiratory pathogens which affect people with cystic fibrosis. In this study, we sought to ascertain the epidemiology and geographic species distribution of 116 Bcc isolates collected from people with CF in Australia and New Zealand. We performed a combination of recA-based PCR, amplified rDNA restriction analysis (ARDRA), pulsed-field gel electrophoresis and repetitive extragenic palindromic PCR on each isolate. Each Burkholderia cenocepacia isolate was also screened by PCR for the presence of the B. cepacia epidemic strain marker. One hundred and fourteen isolates were assigned to a species using recA-based PCR and ARDRA. B. cenocepacia, B. multivorans and B. cepacia accounted for 45.7%, 29.3% and 11.2% of the isolates, respectively. Strain analysis of B. cenocepacia revealed that 85.3% of the isolates were unrelated. One related B. cenocepacia strain was identified amongst 15 people. Whilst full details of person-to-person contact was not available, all patients attended CF centres in Queensland (Qld) and New South Wales (NSW). Although person-to-person transmission of B. cenocepacia strains has occurred in Australia, the majority of CF-related Bcc infections in Australia and New Zealand are most likely acquired from the environment.

Prevalence of refractive error in Europe: the European Eye Epidemiology (E3) Consortium

To estimate the prevalence of refractive error in adults across Europe. Refractive data (mean spherical equivalent) collected between 1990 and 2013 from fifteen population-based cohort and cross-sectional studies of the European Eye Epidemiology (E³) Consortium were combined in a random effects meta-analysis stratified by 5-year age intervals and gender. Participants were excluded if they were identified as having had cataract surgery, retinal detachment, refractive surgery or other factors that might influence refraction. Estimates of refractive error prevalence were obtained including the following classifications: myopia ≤−0.75 diopters (D), high myopia ≤−6D, hyperopia ≥1D and astigmatism ≥1D. Meta-analysis of refractive error was performed for 61,946 individuals from fifteen studies with median age ranging from 44 to 81 and minimal ethnic variation (98 % European ancestry). The age-standardised prevalences (using the 2010 European Standard Population, limited to those ≥25 and <90 years old) were: myopia 30.6 % [95 % confidence interval (CI) 30.4–30.9], high myopia 2.7 % (95 % CI 2.69–2.73), hyperopia 25.2 % (95 % CI 25.0–25.4) and astigmatism 23.9 % (95 % CI 23.7–24.1). Age-specific estimates revealed a high prevalence of myopia in younger participants [47.2 % (CI 41.8–52.5) in 25–29 years-olds]. Refractive error affects just over a half of European adults. The greatest burden of refractive error is due to myopia, with high prevalence rates in young adults. Using the 2010 European population estimates, we estimate there are 227.2 million people with myopia across Europe.

Epidemiology of Dysglycemia in Pregnant Oklahoma American Indian Women

CONTEXT: Minority communities are disproportionately affected by diabetes, and minority women are at an increased risk for glucose intolerance (dysglycemia) during pregnancy.

OBJECTIVES: In pregnant American Indian women, the objectives of the study were to use current criteria to estimate the prevalence of first-trimester (Tr1) dysglycemia and second-trimester (Tr2) incidence of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) and to explore new candidate measures and identify associated clinical factors.

DESIGN: This was a prospective cohort study. In Tr1 we performed a 75-g, 2-hour oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) and glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c) to determine the following: fasting insulin; homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance; serum 1,5-anhydroglucitol; noninvasive skin autofluorescence (SCOUT). We defined dysglycemia by American Diabetes Association and Endocrine Society criteria and as HbA1c of 5.7% or greater. In Tr2 in an available subset, we performed a repeat OGTT and SCOUT.

PARTICIPANTS: Pregnant American Indian women (n = 244 at Tr1; n = 114 at Tr2) participated in the study.

OUTCOMES: The prevalence of dysglycemia at Tr1 and incidence of GDM at Tr2 were measured.

RESULTS: At Tr1, one woman had overt diabetes; 36 (15%) had impaired glucose tolerance (American Diabetes Association criteria and/or abnormal HbA1c) and 59 (24%) had GDM-Tr1 (Endocrine Society criteria). Overall, 74 (30%) had some form of dysglycemia. Associated factors were body mass index, hypertension, waist/hip circumferences, SCOUT score, fasting insulin, and homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance. At Tr2, 114 of the Tr1 cohort underwent a repeat OGTT and SCOUT, and 26 (23%) had GDM. GDM-Tr2 was associated with increased SCOUT scores (P = .029) and Tr1 body mass index, waist/hip circumferences, diastolic blood pressure, fasting insulin, and triglyceride levels. Overall, dysglycemia at Tr1 and/or Tr2 affected 38% of the women.

CONCLUSIONS: Dysglycemia at some point during pregnancy was common among American Indian women. It was associated with features of insulin resistance and may confer long-term health risks for mother and child.

Ophthalmic epidemiology in Europe: the “European Eye Epidemiology” (E3) consortium

The European Eye Epidemiology (E3) consortium is a recently formed consortium of 29 groups from 12 European countries. It already comprises 21 population-based studies and 20 other studies (case-control, cases only, randomized trials), providing ophthalmological data on approximately 170,000 European participants. The aim of the consortium is to promote and sustain collaboration and sharing of data and knowledge in the field of ophthalmic epidemiology in Europe, with particular focus on the harmonization of methods for future research, estimation and projection of frequency and impact of visual outcomes in European populations (including temporal trends and European subregions), identification of risk factors and pathways for eye diseases (lifestyle, vascular and metabolic factors, genetics, epigenetics and biomarkers) and development and validation of prediction models for eye diseases. Coordinating these existing data will allow a detailed study of the risk factors and consequences of eye diseases and visual impairment, including study of international geographical variation which is not possible in individual studies. It is expected that collaborative work on these existing data will provide additional knowledge, despite the fact that the risk factors and the methods for collecting them differ somewhat among the participating studies. Most studies also include biobanks of various biological samples, which will enable identification of biomarkers to detect and predict occurrence and progression of eye diseases. This article outlines the rationale of the consortium, its design and presents a summary of the methodology.

Data on carotid intima-media thickness and lipoprotein subclasses in type 1 diabetes from the Diabetes Control and Complications Trial and the Epidemiology of Diabetes Interventions and Complications (DCCT/EDIC)

Type 1 diabetes (T1DM) is associated with increased risk of macrovascular complications. We examined longitudinal associations of serum conventional lipids and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)-determined lipoprotein subclasses with carotid intima-media thickness (IMT) in adults with T1DM (n=455) enrolled in the Diabetes Control and Complications Trial (DCCT). Data on serum lipids and lipoproteins were collected at DCCT baseline (1983-89) and were correlated with common and internal carotid IMT determined by ultrasonography during the observational follow-up of the DCCT, the Epidemiology of Diabetes Interventions and Complications (EDIC) study, at EDIC 'Year 1' (199-1996) and EDIC 'Year 6' (1998-2000). This article contains data on the associations of DCCT baseline lipoprotein profiles (NMR-based VLDL & chylomicrons, IDL/LDL and HDL subclasses and 'conventional' total, LDL-, HDL-, non-HDL-cholesterol and triglycerides) with carotid IMT at EDIC Years 1 and 6, stratified by gender. The data are supplemental to our original research article describing detailed associations of DCCT baseline lipids and lipoprotein profiles with EDIC Year 12 carotid IMT (Basu et al. in press) [1].

Issues in the epidemiology and population-based screening of primary angle-closure glaucoma

Among Caucasians, it is well known that 75-95% of primary glaucoma is due to open-angle glaucoma (POAG), with angle-closure (PACG) comprising only a very small minority of cases. These figures are reversed among other groups such as Asians and Eskimos, where PACG makes up 80-90% of primary glaucoma. Among Eskimos, the prevalence of PACG has been reported as 2-8%, as compared to 0.1% among Caucasians. It appears that a population tendency toward shallow anterior chambers may explain the excess burden of PACG morbidity. Among Asians, the prevalence of PACG is intermediate between Caucasians and Eskimos. Existing biometrical data do not show a clear tendency toward shallower anterior chambers among Asians. PACG may be screened for on a population basis by means of various techniques that estimate axial or limbal anterior chamber depth, measure intraocular pressure, or evaluate the optic disc or visual fields. Demographic information and medical and family history will also be of great importance in screening for PACG in large populations. Groups at increased risk for the disease include women, individuals over 50, first-degree relatives of PACG probands, and hyperopes.

Compositonal Analysis of Potentially harmful Elements in Soils: Implications for Epidemiology and Kidney Disease

A substantial proportion of aetiological risks for many cancers and chronic diseases remain unexplained. Using geochemical soil and stream water samples collected as part of the Tellus Project studies, current research is investigating naturally occurring background levels of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) in soils and stream sediments and their possible relationship with progressive chronic kidney disease (CKD). The Tellus geological mapping project, Geological Survey Northern Ireland, collected soil sediment and stream water samples on a grid of one sample site every 2 km2 across the rural areas of Northern Ireland resulting in an excess of 6800 soil sampling locations and more than 5800 locations for stream water sampling. Accumulation of several PTEs including arsenic, cadmium, chromium, lead and mercury have been linked with human health and implicated in renal function decline. The hypothesis is that long-term exposure will result in cumulative exposure to PTEs and act as risk factor(s) for cancer and diabetes related CKD and its progression. The ‘bioavailable’ fraction of total PTE soil concentration depends on the ‘bioaccessible’ proportion through an exposure pathway. Recent work has explored this bioaccessible fraction for a range of PTEs across Northern Ireland. In this study the compositional nature of the multivariate geochemical PTE variables and bioaccessible data is explored to augment the investigation into the potential relationship between PTEs, bioaccessibility and disease data.

Epidemiology, Patterns of Care, and Mortality for Patients With Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome in Intensive Care Units in 50 Countries

Importance Limited information exists about the epidemiology, recognition, management, and outcomes of patients with the acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS).

Objectives To evaluate intensive care unit (ICU) incidence and outcome of ARDS and to assess clinician recognition, ventilation management, and use of adjuncts—for example prone positioning—in routine clinical practice for patients fulfilling the ARDS Berlin Definition.

Design, Setting, and Participants The Large Observational Study to Understand the Global Impact of Severe Acute Respiratory Failure (LUNG SAFE) was an international, multicenter, prospective cohort study of patients undergoing invasive or noninvasive ventilation, conducted during 4 consecutive weeks in the winter of 2014 in a convenience sample of 459 ICUs from 50 countries across 5 continents.

Exposures Acute respiratory distress syndrome.

Main Outcomes and Measures The primary outcome was ICU incidence of ARDS. Secondary outcomes included assessment of clinician recognition of ARDS, the application of ventilatory management, the use of adjunctive interventions in routine clinical practice, and clinical outcomes from ARDS.

Results Of 29 144 patients admitted to participating ICUs, 3022 (10.4%) fulfilled ARDS criteria. Of these, 2377 patients developed ARDS in the first 48 hours and whose respiratory failure was managed with invasive mechanical ventilation. The period prevalence of mild ARDS was 30.0% (95% CI, 28.2%-31.9%); of moderate ARDS, 46.6% (95% CI, 44.5%-48.6%); and of severe ARDS, 23.4% (95% CI, 21.7%-25.2%). ARDS represented 0.42 cases per ICU bed over 4 weeks and represented 10.4% (95% CI, 10.0%-10.7%) of ICU admissions and 23.4% of patients requiring mechanical ventilation. Clinical recognition of ARDS ranged from 51.3% (95% CI, 47.5%-55.0%) in mild to 78.5% (95% CI, 74.8%-81.8%) in severe ARDS. Less than two-thirds of patients with ARDS received a tidal volume 8 of mL/kg or less of predicted body weight. Plateau pressure was measured in 40.1% (95% CI, 38.2-42.1), whereas 82.6% (95% CI, 81.0%-84.1%) received a positive end-expository pressure (PEEP) of less than 12 cm H2O. Prone positioning was used in 16.3% (95% CI, 13.7%-19.2%) of patients with severe ARDS. Clinician recognition of ARDS was associated with higher PEEP, greater use of neuromuscular blockade, and prone positioning. Hospital mortality was 34.9% (95% CI, 31.4%-38.5%) for those with mild, 40.3% (95% CI, 37.4%-43.3%) for those with moderate, and 46.1% (95% CI, 41.9%-50.4%) for those with severe ARDS.

Conclusions and Relevance Among ICUs in 50 countries, the period prevalence of ARDS was 10.4% of ICU admissions. This syndrome appeared to be underrecognized and undertreated and associated with a high mortality rate. These findings indicate the potential for improvement in the management of patients with ARDS.

Epidemiology of painful procedures performed in neonates: A systematic review of observational studies

Procedural pain in neonates has been a concern in the last two decades. The purpose of this review was to provide a critical appraisal and a synthesis of the published epidemiological studies about procedural pain in neonates admitted to intensive care units. The aims were to determine the frequency of painful procedures and pain management interventions as well as to identify their predictors. Academic Search, CINAHL, LILACS, Medic Latina, MEDLINE and SciELO databases were searched for observational studies on procedural pain in neonates admitted to intensive care units. Studies in which neonatal data could not be extracted from the paediatric population were excluded. Eighteen studies were included in the review. Six studies with the same study duration, the first 14 days of the neonate life or admission in the unit of care, identified 6832 to 42,413 invasive procedures, with an average of 7.5-17.3 per neonate per day. The most frequent procedures were heel lance, suctioning, venepuncture and insertion of peripheral venous catheter. Pharmacological and nonpharmacological approaches were inconsistently applied. Predictors of the frequency of procedures and analgesic use included the neonate's clinical condition, day of unit stay, type of procedure, parental presence and pain assessment. The existence of pain protocols was not a predictor of analgesia. Painful procedures were performed frequently and often with inadequate pain management. Unlike neonate clinical factors, organizational factors may be modified to promote a context of care more favourable to pain management. © 2015 European Pain Federation - EFIC®