Predicting dyslexia using prereading skills:the role of sensorimotor and cognitive abilities

Background: It is well established that phonological awareness, print knowledge and rapid naming predict later reading difficulties. However, additional auditory, visual and motor difficulties have also been observed in dyslexic children. It is examined to what extent these difficulties can be used to predict later literacy difficulties. Method: An unselected sample of 267 children at school entry completed a wide battery of tasks associated with dyslexia. Their reading was tested 2, 3 and 4 years later and poor readers were identified (n = 42). Logistic regression and multiple case study approaches were used to examine the predictive validity of different tasks. Results: As expected, print knowledge, verbal short-term memory, phonological awareness and rapid naming were good predictors of later poor reading. Deficits in visual search and in auditory processing were also present in a large minority of the poor readers. Almost all poor readers showed deficits in at least one area at school entry, but there was no single deficit that characterised the majority of poor readers. Conclusions: Results are in line with Pennington’s (2006) multiple deficits view of dyslexia. They indicate that the causes of poor reading outcome are multiple, interacting and probabilistic, rather than deterministic. Keywords: Dyslexia; educational attainment; longitudinal studies; prediction; phonological processing.

Prática pedagógica em educação de infância : consciência fonológica e desenvolvimento de competências orais e escritas

Relatório de estágio para a obtenção do grau de mestre em Educação pré-escolar e 1º Ciclo do ensino básico

Further evidence for a parent-of-origin effect at the NOP9 locus on language-related phenotypes

Background - Specific language impairment (SLI) is a common neurodevelopmental disorder, observed in 5–10 % of children. Family and twin studies suggest a strong genetic component, but relatively few candidate genes have been reported to date. A recent genome-wide association study (GWAS) described the first statistically significant association specifically for a SLI cohort between a missense variant (rs4280164) in the NOP9 gene and language-related phenotypes under a parent-of-origin model. Replications of these findings are particularly challenging because the availability of parental DNA is required. Methods - We used two independent family-based cohorts characterised with reading- and language-related traits: a longitudinal cohort (n = 106 informative families) including children with language and reading difficulties and a nuclear family cohort (n = 264 families) selected for dyslexia. Results - We observed association with language-related measures when modelling for parent-of-origin effects at the NOP9 locus in both cohorts: minimum P = 0.001 for phonological awareness with a paternal effect in the first cohort and minimum P = 0.0004 for irregular word reading with a maternal effect in the second cohort. Allelic and parental trends were not consistent when compared to the original study. Conclusions - A parent-of-origin effect at this locus was detected in both cohorts, albeit with different trends. These findings contribute in interpreting the original GWAS report and support further investigations of the NOP9 locus and its role in language-related traits. A systematic evaluation of parent-of-origin effects in genetic association studies has the potential to reveal novel mechanisms underlying complex traits.

The implementation of a literacy intervention 'Station Teaching' in infant classes in Irish primary schools

Background: I conducted my research in the context of The National Literacy Strategy (DES, 2011), which maintains that every young person should be literate and it outlines targets for improving literacy in schools from 2011 to 2020. There has been much debate on the teaching of literacy and in particular the teaching of reading. Clark (2014) outlines how learning to read should be a developmental language process and that the approaches in the early years of schooling will colour the children’s motivation and their perception of reading as a purposeful activity. The acquisition of literacy begins in the home but this study focuses on the implementation of a literacy intervention Station Teaching in the infant classes in primary school. Station Teaching occurs when a class is divided into four or five small groups of pupils and they receive intensive tuition at four or five different Stations with the help of Support teachers: New Reading, Familiar Reading, Phonics, Writing and Oral Language. Research Questions: These research questions frame my study: How is Station Teaching implemented? What is the experience of the intervention Station Teaching from the participants’ point of view: teachers, pupils, parents? What notion of literacy is Station Teaching facilitating? Methods: I chose a pragmatic parallel mixed methods design as suggested by Mertens (2010). I collected and analysed both the quantitative and qualitative data to answer the study’s research questions. In the study the quantitative data were collected from a questionnaire issued to 21 schools in Ireland. I used Excel as a data management package and thematic analysis to analyse and present the data in themes. I collected qualitative data from a case study in a school. This data included observations of two classes over a period of a year; interviews with teachers, pupils and parents; children’s drawings, photographs, teachers’ diaries and video evidence. I analysed and presented the evidence from the qualitative data in themes. Main Findings: There are many skills and strategies that are essential to effective literacy teaching in the early years including phonological awareness, phonics, vocabulary, fluency, comprehension and writing. These skills can be taught during Station Teaching. Early intervention in the early years is essential to pupils’ acquisition of literacy. The expertise of the teacher is key to improving the literacy achievement of pupils Teachers and pupils enjoy participating in ST. Pupils are motivated to read and engage in meaningful activities during ST. Staff collaboration is vital for ST to succeed ST facilitates small group work and teachers can differentiate accordingly while including all pupils in the groups. Pupils’ learning is extended in ST but extension activities need to be addressed in the Writing Station. More training should be provided for teachers on the implementation of ST and more funding for resources should be available to schools Significant contribution of the work: The main significance of the study includes: insights into the classroom implementation of Station Teaching in infant classes and extensive research into characteristics of an effective teacher of literacy.

Examining Cognitive Processing in Children with an Arithmetic Disability

Currently there is no consensus as to the specific cognitive impairments that characterize mathematical disabilities (MD) or specific subtypes such as an arithmetic disability (AD). The present study sought to address this concern by examining cognitive processes that might undergird AD in children. The present study utilized archival data to conduct two investigations. The first investigation examined the executive functioning and working memory of children with AD. An age-matched achievement-matched design was employed to explore whether children with AD exhibit developmental lags or deficits in these cognitive domains. While children with AD did not exhibit impairments in verbal working memory or colour word inhibition, they did demonstrate impairments in shifting attention, visual-spatial working memory, and quantity inhibition. As children with AD did not perform more poorly than their younger achievement-matched peers on any of these tasks, impairments in specific areas of executive functioning and working memory appeared to reflect a developmental lag rather than a cognitive deficit. The second study examined the phonological processing performance of children with AD compared to children with comorbid disabilities in arithmetic and word recognition (AD/WRD) and to typically achieving (TA) children. Results indicated that, while children with AD did demonstrate impairments on all isolated naming speed tasks, trail making digits, and memory for digits, they did not demonstrate impairments on measures of phonological awareness, nonword repetition, serial processing speed, or serial naming speed. In contrast, children with AD/WRD demonstrated impairments on measures of phonological awareness, phonological short-term memory, isolated naming speed, serial processing speed, and the alphabet a-z task. Overall, results suggested that phonological processing impairments are more prominent in children with a WRD than children with an AD. Together, these studies further our understanding of the nature of the cognitive processes that underlie AD by focusing upon rarely used methods (i.e., age-matched achievement-matched design) and under-examined cognitive domains (i.e., phonological processing).

Étiologie génétique et cognitive de l’association entre les habiletés en lecture et les dimensions du trouble déficitaire de l’attention avec ou sans hyperactivité (TDAH)

La présente thèse examine les associations entre les dimensions du TDAH et les habiletés en lecture sur les plans phénotypique, génétique et cognitif. En premier lieu, les associations entre les dimensions du TDAH (inattention et hyperactivité/impulsivité) et les habiletés en lecture (décodage et compréhension en lecture) chez des enfants au début du primaire (6-8 ans) ont été examinées. Les résultats révèlent des associations similaires. Toutefois, seules celles entre l’inattention et les habiletés en lecture demeurent après que l’hyperactivité/impulsivité, les symptômes de trouble du comportement et les habiletés non verbales aient été contrôlés. De plus, les associations entre l’inattention et les habiletés en lecture s’expliquent en grande partie par des facteurs génétiques. En second lieu, les associations entre les dimensions du TDAH et les habiletés en lecture (lecture de mots et exactitude/vitesse lors de la lecture d’un texte) ont été étudiées à 14-15 ans. Seule l’inattention demeure associée aux habiletés en lecture après que l’hyperactivité/impulsivité, les habiletés verbales et les habiletés non verbales aient été contrôlées. L’inattention et les habiletés en lecture sont aussi corrélées sur le plan génétique, mais ces corrélations deviennent non significatives lorsque les habiletés verbales sont contrôlées. En dernier lieu, des habiletés cognitives ont été étudiées comme mécanismes sous-jacents potentiels de l’association entre l’inattention et les habiletés en lecture (décodage et compréhension en lecture) à l’enfance. Il apparait que la conscience phonologique, la vitesse de dénomination de chiffres, le traitement temporel bimodal et le vocabulaire sont des médiateurs de l’association entre l’inattention et le décodage alors que la conscience phonologique, la vitesse de dénomination de chiffres et de couleurs et le vocabulaire sont des médiateurs de l’association entre l’inattention et la compréhension en lecture. De plus, des facteurs génétiques communs ont été observés entre certains médiateurs (conscience phonologique, vitesse de dénomination des chiffres et traitement temporel bimodal), l’inattention et le décodage. Somme toute, la présente thèse montre que des facteurs génétiques expliquent en partie ces associations à l’enfance et l’adolescence. Des médiateurs cognitifs sous-tendent ces associations, possiblement par des processus génétiques et environnementaux qui devront être précisés dans le futur.

Desenvolver a consciência fonológica na educação pré-escolar : potencialidades da exploração da diversidade linguística

O presente trabalho centra-se no desenvolvimento de um projeto de sensibilização à diversidade linguística e cultural, intitulado “Por ritmos nunca dantes navegados”, numa sala de um jardim de infância português, tendo como finalidade avaliar e compreender o desenvolvimento da consciência fonológica de um grupo de doze crianças entre os 3 e os 4 anos de idade. Para o efeito, recorremos a uma metodologia mista, que se traduziu em procedimentos de tipo quantitativo e qualitativo de recolha e análise de dados: no primeiro caso, recorremos a testes de consciência fonológica e de discriminação auditiva, aplicados a um grupo experimental e a um grupo de controlo de seis crianças antes e após as sessões de sensibilização; no segundo caso, recorremos à observação direta e à vídeo gravação das quatro sessões do projeto. A análise dos dados recolhidos, realizada através de análise estatística e de conteúdo, permitiu alcançar resultados relevantes, tendo-se registado um desenvolvimento significativo das capacidades de discriminação auditiva e de consciência fonológica (silábica e da palavra) do grupo experimental que esteve presente nas sessões de sensibilização. Os resultados da análise estatística parecem sugerir que o contacto com línguas diferentes, através de atividades de sensibilização, contribui para a descoberta de unidades segmentais das línguas, essenciais para realizar tarefas de discriminação auditiva e de consciência fonológica. A análise de conteúdo ajudou a corroborar os resultados obtidos nos testes de discriminação auditiva e de consciência fonológica, tendo as crianças do grupo experimental revelado, nas suas interações, ser capazes de discriminar sons, bem como segmentar e manipular palavras e sílabas. Estes resultados sustentam a importância das abordagens plurais na educação pré-escolar, pois o contacto com sonoridades, línguas e palavras diferentes faz com que a criança atente no objeto-língua, realizando sobre ele múltiplas e ricas atividades para o desenvolvimento de competências metalinguísticas e também sociais.

Campos lexicais e desenvolvimento de vocabulário na educação pré-escolar

O presente estudo pretendeu desenvolver o capital lexical de crianças a frequentar a Educação Pré-Escolar a partir da exploração de campos lexicais com recurso a obras da literatura infantil e de jogos. Paralelamente, realizamos com as crianças atividades centradas no reconhecimento de palavras, na divisão silábica e na exploração da correspondência grafema-fonema. Recolhemos dados relativos ao desempenho das crianças, a partir das atividades em que estas participaram. A análise de conteúdo dos dados recolhidos revelou que as crianças tinham efetivamente adquirido novo vocabulário, que procuravam utilizar em novos contextos, e desenvolvido algumas competências no domínio da consciência fonológica.

A consciência fonológica ao serviço da competência leitora: os sons das palavras

Dissertação de Mestrado em Ciências da Educação - Especialização em Animação da Leitura, apresentada à Escola Superior de Educação de Paula Frassinetti

Prática pedagógica em educação de infância : consciência fonológica e desenvolvimento de competências orais e escritas

Relatório de estágio para a obtenção do grau de mestre em Educação pré-escolar e 1º Ciclo do ensino básico

English syllable confusion and imitation in Korean bilingual and monolingual children and adults

In the present study, Korean-English bilingual (KEB) and Korean monolingual (KM) children, between the ages of 8 and 13 years, and KEB adults, ages 18 and older, were examined with one speech perception task, called the Nonsense Syllable Confusion Matrix (NSCM) task (Allen, 2005), and two production tasks, called the Nonsense Syllable Imitation Task (NSIT) and the Nonword Repetition Task (NRT; Dollaghan & Campbell, 1998). The present study examined (a) which English sounds on the NSCM task were identified less well, presumably due to interference from Korean phonology, in bilinguals learning English as a second language (L2) and in monolinguals learning English as a foreign language (FL); (b) which English phonemes on the NSIT were more challenging for bilinguals and monolinguals to produce; (c) whether perception on the NSCM task is related to production on the NSIT, or phonological awareness, as measured by the NRT; and (d) whether perception and production differ in three age-language status groups (i.e., KEB children, KEB adults, and KM children) and in three proficiency subgroups of KEB children (i.e., English-dominant, ED; balanced, BAL; and Korean-dominant, KD). In order to determine English proficiency in each group, language samples were extensively and rigorously analyzed, using software, called Systematic Analysis of Language Transcripts (SALT). Length of samples in complete and intelligible utterances, number of different and total words (NDW and NTW, respectively), speech rate in words per minute (WPM), and number of grammatical errors, mazes, and abandoned utterances were measured and compared among the three initial groups and the three proficiency subgroups. Results of the language sample analysis (LSA) showed significant group differences only between the KEBs and the KM children, but not between the KEB children and adults. Nonetheless, compared to normative means (from a sample length- and age-matched database provided by SALT), the KEB adult group and the KD subgroup produced English at significantly slower speech rates than expected for monolingual, English-speaking counterparts. Two existing models of bilingual speech perception and production—the Speech Learning Model or SLM (Flege, 1987, 1992) and the Perceptual Assimilation Model or PAM (Best, McRoberts, & Sithole, 1988; Best, McRoberts, & Goodell, 2001)—were considered to see if they could account for the perceptual and production patterns evident in the present study. The selected English sounds for stimuli in the NSCM task and the NSIT were 10 consonants, /p, b, k, g, f, θ, s, z, ʧ, ʤ/, and 3 vowels /I, ɛ, æ/, which were used to create 30 nonsense syllables in a consonant-vowel structure. Based on phonetic or phonemic differences between the two languages, English sounds were categorized either as familiar sounds—namely, English sounds that are similar, but not identical, to L1 Korean, including /p, k, s, ʧ, ɛ/—or unfamiliar sounds—namely, English sounds that are new to L1, including /b, g, f, θ, z, ʤ, I, æ/. The results of the NSCM task showed that (a) consonants were perceived correctly more often than vowels, (b) familiar sounds were perceived correctly more often than unfamiliar ones, and (c) familiar consonants were perceived correctly more often than unfamiliar ones across the three age-language status groups and across the three proficiency subgroups; and (d) the KEB children perceived correctly more often than the KEB adults, the KEB children and adults perceived correctly more often than the KM children, and the ED and BAL subgroups perceived correctly more often than the KD subgroup. The results of the NSIT showed (a) consonants were produced more accurately than vowels, and (b) familiar sounds were produced more accurately than unfamiliar ones, across the three age-language status groups. Also, (c) familiar consonants were produced more accurately than unfamiliar ones in the KEB and KM child groups, and (d) unfamiliar vowels were produced more accurately than a familiar one in the KEB child group, but the reverse was true in the KEB adult and KM child groups. The KEB children produced sounds correctly significantly more often than the KM children and the KEB adults, though the percent correct differences were smaller than for perception. Production differences were not found among the three proficiency subgroups. Perception on the NSCM task was compared to production on the NSIT and NRT. Weak positive correlations were found between perception and production (NSIT) for unfamiliar consonants and sounds, whereas a weak negative correlation was found for unfamiliar vowels. Several correlations were significant for perceptual performance on the NSCM task and overall production performance on the NRT: for unfamiliar consonants, unfamiliar vowels, unfamiliar sounds, consonants, vowels, and overall performance on the NSCM task. Nonetheless, no significant correlation was found between production on the NSIT and NRT. Evidently these are two very different production tasks, where immediate imitation of single syllables on the NSIT results in high performance for all groups. Findings of the present study suggest that (a) perception and production of L2 consonants differ from those of vowels; (b) perception and production of L2 sounds involve an interaction of sound type and familiarity; (c) a weak relation exists between perception and production performance for unfamiliar sounds; and (d) L2 experience generally predicts perceptual and production performance. The present study yields several conclusions. The first is that familiarity of sounds is an important influence on L2 learning, as claimed by both SLM and PAM. In the present study, familiar sounds were perceived and produced correctly more often than unfamiliar ones in most cases, in keeping with PAM, though experienced L2 learners (i.e., the KEB children) produced unfamiliar vowels better than familiar ones, in keeping with SLM. Nonetheless, the second conclusion is that neither SLM nor PAM consistently and thoroughly explains the results of the present study. This is because both theories assume that the influence of L1 on the perception of L2 consonants and vowels works in the same way as for production of them. The third and fourth conclusions are two proposed arguments: that perception and production of consonants are different than for vowels, and that sound type interacts with familiarity and L2 experience. These two arguments can best explain the current findings. These findings may help us to develop educational curricula for bilingual individuals listening to and articulating English. Further, the extensive analysis of spontaneous speech in the present study should contribute to the specification of parameters for normal language development and function in Korean-English bilingual children and adults.

Do Pré-escolar ao 1.º Ciclo: O percurso da escrita

Relatório de Estágio apresentado à Escola Superior de Educação de Paula Frassinetti para obtenção de grau de Mestre em Educação Pré-Escolar e Ensino do 1.º Ciclo do Ensino Básico

O erro mora aqui! - A relação entre a consciência fonológica e morfológica e a natureza dos erros ortográficos em crianças do 2º e 4º ano de escolaridade

Dissertação de Mestrado apresentada ao Instituto Superior de Psicologia Aplicada para obtenção de grau de Mestre na especialidade de Psicologia Educacional.

Promotion of literacy skills in early childhood: a follow-up study from kindergarten to grade 1

Several researchers have shown that invented spelling activities in kindergarten foster preschool children’s early literacy skills. However, few studies have assessed its impact on learning to read and write in the first year of primary school. Our goal was to analyse the impact of an invented spelling programme with kindergarteners on their literacy skills until the end of Grade 1. A follow-up study was conducted with 45 five-year-old Portuguese children attending two classes of two schools in Lisbon. The teaching effect was controlled as children from each class were randomly assigned into two groups (experimental/control) — equivalent on letter knowledge, cognitive abilities and phonological awareness. The participants were assessed in kindergarten with a pre-test, immediate post-test and delayed post-test (spelling; reading; phonemic awareness) and at the end of Grade 1 (spelling; reading). The experimental group participated in invented spelling sessions, while control children participated in storytelling activities. Data analysis revealed statistically significant differences between the two groups. The experimental group scored higher, not only in kindergarten but also in the follow-up year for all literacy measures.

Programas de escrita inventada: Será que a estrutura silábica das palavras influencia a evolução da escrita e da leitura?

Dissertação de Mestrado apresentada no ISPA – Instituto Universitário para obtenção de grau de Mestre na especialidade de Psicologia Educacional