Induktion und Analyse spezifischer Immunantworten nach intranodaler Immunisierung mit RNA im murinen Modell

Die Wirksamkeit einer Vakzine ist von vielen Parametern abh��ngig. Dazu geh��ren unter anderen: das ausgew��hlte Antigen, die Formulation in der das Antigen benutzt wird sowie die Applikationsroute. Antigen-kodierende Ribonukleins��uren (RNA) gilt heutzutage als eine sichere und effiziente Alternative zu traditionellen Impfstoff-Formulierungen, wie Peptiden, rekombinanten Proteinen, viralen Systemen oder DNA basierten Impfstoffen. Bez��glich des Applikationsortes repr��sentiert der Lymphknoten ein optimales Milieu f��r die Interaktion zwischen antigenpr��sentierenden Zellen und T-Zellen. Vor diesem Hintergrund war die Zielsetzung dieser Arbeit, ein auf direktem in vivo Transfer von Antigen-kodierender in vitro transkribierter RNA (IVT-RNA) basierendes Impfverfahren zu entwickeln, zu charakterisieren und auf seine anti-tumorale Wirksamkeit zu testen. In der vorliegenden Arbeit konnte gezeigt werden, dass dendritische Zellen (DCs) in vitro hocheffizient mit IVT-RNA transfiziert werden k��nnen und eine hohe stimulatorische Kapazit��t besitzen. Durch Sequenzmodifikation der IVT-RNA konnten wir die Transkriptstabilit��t und Translationseffizienz erh��hen was zu einer Steigerung der stimulatorischen Kapazit��t in vivo f��hrte. Dar��ber hinaus untersuchten wir die Auswirkung der Insertion eines Signalpeptides 5��� sowie einer C-terminalen transmembran- und zytosolischen-Dom��ne eines MHC-Klasse-I-Molek��ls am 3��� der Antigen-kodierenden Sequenz auf die Effizienz der MHC-Klasse-I und -II Pr��sentation. Wir konnten in vitro und in vivo nachweisen, dass diese Modifikation zu einer gesteigerten, simultanen Stimulation von antigenspezifischen CD4+ und CD8+ T-Zellen f��hrt. Auf der Basis der optimierten Vektorkassetten etablierten wir die intranodale (i.n.) Transfektion von antigenpr��sentierenden Zellen in der Maus. Dazu nutzten wir verschiedene Reportersysteme (eGFP-RNA, fluoreszensmarkierte RNA) und konnten zeigen, dass die intranodale Applikation von IVT-RNA zu selektiven Transfektion und Maturation lymphknotenresidenter DCs f��hrt. Zur Untersuchung der immunologischen Effekte wurden in erster Linie auf Influenza-Hemagglutinin-A und Ovalbumin basierende Modellantigensysteme verwendet. Beide Antigene wurden als Antigen-MHC-Fusionskonstrukte genutzt. Als Responderzellen wurden TCR-transgene Lymphozyten verwendet, die MHC-Klasse-I oder -Klasse-II restringierte Epitope des Influenza-Hemagglutinin-A bzw. des Ovalbumin-Proteins erkennen. Wir konnten in vivo zeigen, dass die intranodale Immunisierung mit IVT-RNA zu einer effizienten Stimulation und Expansion von antigenspezifischen CD4+ und CD8+ T-Zellen in einer dosisabh��ngigen Weise f��hrt. Funktionell konnte gezeigt werden, dass diese T-Zellen Zytokine sezernieren und zur Zytolyse bef��higt sind. Wir waren in der Lage durch repetitive i.n. RNA Immunisierung ein ���Priming��� CD8+ T-Zellen in naiven M��usen sowohl gegen virale als auch gegen Tumor assoziierte Antigene zu erreichen. Die geprimten T-Zellen waren bef��higt eine zytolytische Aktivit��t gegen mit spezifischem Peptid beladene Targetzellen zu generieren. Dar��ber hinaus waren wir in der Lage Ged��chtnisszellen expandieren zu k��nnen. Abschlie��end konnten wir in Tumormodellen sowohl in prophylaktischen als auch in therapeutischen Experimenten zeigen dass die i.n. RNA Vakzination die Potenz zur Induktion einer anti-tumoralen Immunit��t besitzt.

Host immune response in immunodeficient mice against infection with Cryptosporidium parvum

Immunantwort von immundefizienten M��usen gegen��ber Infektionen mit Cryptosporidium parvum. Cryptosporidium parvum ist ein intrazellul��rer, protozoischer Krankheitserreger, der im immunkompromittierten Wirt zu lebensbedrohender Enteritis f��hren kann. CD4+ T-Zellen und Interferon (IFN)-�� spielen wesentliche Rollen bei der Wirtsimmunantwort gegen die Infektion. Dennoch sind die Effektormechanismen, die zur Resistenz f��hren nur wenig verstanden. In dieser Studie wurde die Immunantwort von IFN-��- und Interleukin (IL)-12-Defektm��usen parallel zu Wildtypm��usen analysiert. Die Ergebnisse identifizierten IFN-�� als Schl��sselzytokin bei der nat��rlichen und erworbenen Immunit��t w��hrend der Erst- und Folgeinfektion mit C. parvum. Tumornekrosefaktor (TNF)-�� ist m��glicherweise ein Induktor der fr��hen IFN-��-Antwort in IL-12 Knockout-M��usen. Weiterhin tragen offenbar sowohl Th1- als auch Th2-Zytokine zur ��berwindung der Prim��rinfektion bei, die ersten mehr als die letztgenannten. Zytokingene waren am Ort der Infektion (Ileum) dramatisch ver��ndert, nicht aber in den lokalen Lymphknoten und der Milz. Nach Folgeinfektion ergab sich in Abwesenheit von IFN-�� eine signifikante Erh��hung der Th2-Zytokine IL-5 and IL-13. Die Ergebnisse zeigten weiterhin, dass das Th1-Zytokin IL-18 zur Resistenz gegen��ber C. parvum beitr��gt, m��glicherweise durch verschiedene Immunfunktionen, wie der Regulation von Serum-IFN-�� w��hrend der Infektion und/oder der Erhaltung der Homeostase der Th1/Th2-Zytokine durch Regulation der Th2-Zytokine. Weiterhin zeigten diese Untersuchungen den Transfer von Resistenz gegen��ber C. parvum von infizierten auf na��ve M��use mittels stimulierter intraepithelialer Lymphozyten und CD4+ T-Zellen. Diese Ergebnisse weisen auf die Gegenwart von C. parvum-spezifischen CD4+ T-Zellen in anderen lymphatischen Geweben neben der Darmmukosa hin. Eine Stimulation der Spendertiere durch Infektion war notwendig f��r eine ��bertragbare sch��tzende Immunit��t. Dennoch konnte die ��bertragene Immunit��t nicht die Infektion der Empf��ngertiere vollst��ndig verhindern; eine Verdopplung der Spenderzellen f��hrte zu keinem besseren Ergebnis. Weiterhin ergab der Transfer von CD4+ und CD8+ T-Zellen (Pan-T-Zellen) keinen erh��hten Schutz der naiven Empf��ngertiere als der alleinige Transfer von CD4+ T-Zellen. Dies weist auf die fehlende Bedeutung der CD8+ T-Zellen beim Schutz vor C. parvum-Infektion hin.

Die Rolle der Ubiquitin-Ligase Smurf2 in T-Lymphozyten bei der Entwicklung von chronisch entz��ndlichen Darmerkrankungen

TGF-beta ist ein Schl��sselmolek��l zellvermittelter Immuntoleranz. So spielt es neben seiner pleiotropen Rolle in Immunzellen auch bei der Tumorentwicklung eine gro��e Rolle. Das TGF-beta hat bei der Tumorentwicklung eine duale Rolle. So dient es in fr��hen Phasen als Tumorsuppressor, w��hrenddessen es in sp��ten Phasen der Entwicklung als Tumorpromotor wirkt. Eine strikte Regulation des TGF-beta Signalweges ist daher f��r ein funktionierendes Immunsystem von essentieller Bedeutung. Die Ubiquitin Ligase Smurf2 ist dabei ein wichtiger negativ Regulator des TGF-beta Signalweges.In der vorliegenden Arbeit konnte eine neue Splei��form des Smurf2 (dE2Smurf2) aus murinen CD4+ T-Zellen isoliert werden, deren Funktion in vitro und in vivo in T-Lymphozyten untersucht worden ist. F��r diese Splei��form konnte zudem eine humane Relevanz nachgewiesen werden. Mit Hilfe von ��berexpressionen in Cos7 Zellen konnte eine ver��nderte Lokalisation der Smurf2 Splei��formen (WT und dE2) festgestellt werden. Dabei konnten lysosomale und endosomale Kompartimente bei der Kolokalisation mit dem dE2Smurf2 Konstrukt beobachtet werden. Das Splei��en des Exons2 f��hrte dabei zu ��nderungen der Topologie der N-terminalen C2-Dom��ne, wodurch sich eine ver��nderte Lokalisation in der Zelle beschreiben lie��. Mit der ver��nderten intrazellul��ren Verteilung erfuhr auch die Funktion der dE2Smurf2 Ubiquitin Ligase eine ��nderung. So konnte ��berraschenderweise eine positive Signalinduktion des TGF-beta Signalweges beobachtet werden, was im Gegensatz zum beschriebenen WTSmurf2 stand. Durch eine ��berexpression des dE2Smurf2 Proteins in T-Lymphozyten wurde der TGF-beta Signalweg in CD4+ und CD8+ Zellen positiv reguliert, dabei wurde der TGFbetaRII vermehrt exprimiert und gleichzeitig fand eine verst��rkte Phosphorylierung der Transkriptionsfaktoren Smad2 und Smad3 nach TGF-beta Stimulation statt. Die transgenen T-Lymphozyten waren somit sensitiver gegen��ber TGF-beta. Dies f��hrte zur Hypothese, die durch Western Blot Analyse best��tigt werden konnte, da�� das dE2Smurf2 nach ��berexpression seine WT-Form bindet und dadurch degradiert. Die Degradation der Ubiquitin Ligase war dabei Smad7 abh��ngig. Zur Analyse des Einflusses der Ubiquitin Ligase dE2Smurf2 auf die Differenzierung von CD4+ T-Zellen, sowie ihre Rolle bei der T-Zell Proliferation, konnte gezeigt werden, da�� durch die h��here Sensitivit��t gegen��ber TGF-beta naive T-Zellen unter Einflu�� von TGF-beta und IL6 vermehrt in TH17 Zellen differenzierten. Zudem konnte gezeigt werden, da�� die Proliferationsrate transgener naiver CD4+ T-Zellen bei geringen Mengen von TGF-beta starkt vermindert war. Weiterhin konnte gezeigt werden, da�� bei einer Differenzierung der naiven CD4+ T-Zellen in TH1 Zellen, diese signifkant weniger das proinflammatorische Zytokin INF�� produzierten.So zeigten in vivo Versuche, da�� die transgenen Tiere in der Entwicklung von Kolorektalen Karzinomen protektiert waren. Sowohl im kolitisassiziierten Tumor Modell als auch bei der spontanen Entwicklung von Tumoren im APCmin Modell. Dies konnte zum einen auf eine deutlich verminderte Entz��ndung (geringere Produktion an Zytokinen durch verminderte Proliferation) des Darms und zum anderen durch eine st��rkere Produktion an zytotoxischen Genen, wie Perforin, INF�� und Granzym B erkl��rt werden. Interessanterweise konnte jedoch im Transfer Kolitis Modell eher eine proinflammatorische Wirkung des dE2Smurf2 Proteins nachgewiesen werden. So wiesen die immundefizienten M��use, in denen die transgenen T-Zellen injiziert wurden, eine signifikant st��rkere Kolitis auf als die Kontrollen. Dies konnte mit einer ��berproduktion an IL17 sezernierenden T-Zellen erkl��rt werden. Klonierungsexperimente f��hrten zudem zur Identifikation einer bisher nicht beschriebenen nicht kodierenden RNA. Diese zeigte in Kombination mit dem dE2Smurf2 Protein in einer Reportergen Analyse eine Hyperaktivierung des Smad3 Promotors. Diese Daten liefern zum einen ein genaueres Modell ��ber die Regulation des TGF-beta Signalweges sowie wichtige Erkenntnisse zur Pathophysiologie chronisch entz��ndlicher Darmerkrankung und daraus resultierende Tumorerkrankungen. So entwickelt sich das dE2Smurf2, Teil des TGF-beta Signalweges, als attraktives Zielprotein f��r die Modulation von chronisch entz��ndlichen Darmerkrankungen und (kolitisassoziierte) Kolonkarzinomen.

The role of dendritic cells (DC) in Friend retrovirus-induced immunosuppression and immunotherapeutic applications of functionalized nanoparticles

Friend murine leukemia Virus (FV) infection of immunocompetent mice is a well- established model to acquire further knowledge about viral immune suppression mechanisms, with the aim to develop therapeutics against retrovirus-induced diseases. Interestingly, BALB/c mice are infected by low doses of FV and die from FV-induced erythroleukemia, while C57/BL6 mice are infected by FV only at high viral dose, and remain persistently infected for their whole life. Due to the central role of dendritic cells (DC) in the induction of anti-viral responses, we asked for their functional role in the genotype-dependent sensitivity towards FV infection. In my PhD study I showed that bone marrow (BM)-derived DC differentiated from FV-infected BM cells obtained from FV-inoculated BALB/c (FV susceptible) and C57BL/6 (FV resistant) mice showed an increased endocytotic activity and lowered expression of MHCII and of costimulatory receptors as compared with non-infected control BMDC. FV-infected BMDC from either mouse strain were partially resistant towards stimulation-induced upregulation of MHCII and costimulators, and accordingly were poor T cell stimulators in vitro and in vivo. In addition, FV-infected BMDC displayed an altered expression profile of proinflammator cytokines and favoured Th2 polarization. Ongoing work is focussed on elucidating the functional role of proteins identified as differentially expressed in FV-infected DC in a genotype-dependent manner, which therefore may contribute to the differential course of FV infection in vivo in BALB/c versus C57BL/6 mice. So far, more than 300 proteins have been identified which are differently regulated in FV-infected vs. uninfected DC from both mouse strains. One of these proteins, S100A9, was strongly upregulated specifically in BMDC derived from FV-infected C57BL/6 BM cells. S100A9-/- mice were more sensitive towards inoculation with FV than corresponding wild type (WT) mice (both C57BL/6 background), which suggests a decisive role of this factor for anti-viral defense. In addition, FV-infected S100A9-/- BMDC showed lower motility than WT DC. The future work is aimed to further elucidate the functional importance of S100A9 for DC functions. To exploit the potential of DC for immunotherapeutic applications, in another project of this PhD study the usability of different types of functionalized nanoparticles

Untersuchungen der Aktivierungs- und Effektorwege von T-Helferzellen in der Pathogenese vaskul��rer inflammatorischer Prozesse

T-Zellen sind an der Induktion und Erhaltung chronischer Entz��ndungen ma��geblich beteiligt. Im Bereich kardiovaskul��rer Erkrankungen konnte eine Beteiligung von T-Zellen an der Entstehung von Ateriosklerose, Bluthochdruck und arterieller Thrombose aufgezeigt werden. Allerdings sind sowohl die Mechanismen ihrer Aktivierung, als auch die f��r die Entstehung und Persistenz vaskul��rer Entz��ndung relevanten Effektorfunktionen weitgehend unbekannt. rnIn der vorliegenden Arbeit konnte erstmals in zwei Mausmodellen gezeigt werden, dass sowohl die dem Bluthochdruck zugrundeliegende Entz��ndung der Arterienw��nde als auch die durch ven��se Thrombose ausgel��ste Entz��ndung der Venenwand zu einer selektiven Einwanderung von CD4+ und CD8+ T-Zellen mit einem Effektor-Ged��chtniszell-Ph��notyp f��hrt. Mit Hilfe von Nur77-GFP-transgenen M��usen konnte gezeigt werden, dass die in die entz��ndeten Gef����w��nde eingewanderten T-Zellen lokal T-Zell-Rezeptor-unabh��ngig aktiviert werden.rnBluthochdruck und ven��se Thrombose sind durch eine verst��rkte Expression eines ��hnlichen Musters an Zytokinen und Chemokinen in den Gef����w��nden begleitet, das in rekombinanter Form in einem Teil der Effektor-T-Ged��chtniszellen die Bildung von IFN-�� ausl��st. Die in dieser Arbeit vorgestellten Ergebnisse weisen erstmals eine Beteiligung von T-Zellen an der Entz��ndung der Venenwand im Rahmen einer ven��sen Thrombose nach. Des Weiteren konnten erstmals Hinweise darauf gefunden werden, dass T-Zellen Gef����entz��ndungen durch eine Zytokin-induzierte IFN-��-Bildung erhalten und verst��rken.rn

Crosstalk between B lymphocytes, microbiota and the intestinal epithelium governs immunity versus metabolism in the gut

Using a systems biology approach, we discovered and dissected a three-way interaction between the immune system, the intestinal epithelium and the microbiota. We found that, in the absence of B cells, or of IgA, and in the presence of the microbiota, the intestinal epithelium launches its own protective mechanisms, upregulating interferon-inducible immune response pathways and simultaneously repressing Gata4-related metabolic functions. This shift in intestinal function leads to lipid malabsorption and decreased deposition of body fat. Network analysis revealed the presence of two interconnected epithelial-cell gene networks, one governing lipid metabolism and another regulating immunity, that were inversely expressed. Gene expression patterns in gut biopsies from individuals with common variable immunodeficiency or with HIV infection and intestinal malabsorption were very similar to those of the B cell-deficient mice, providing a possible explanation for a longstanding enigmatic association between immunodeficiency and defective lipid absorption in humans.

Comparative transcriptomics of extreme phenotypes of human HIV-1 infection and SIV infection in sooty mangabey and rhesus macaque

High levels of HIV-1 replication during the chronic phase of infection usually correlate with rapid progression to severe immunodeficiency. However, a minority of highly viremic individuals remains asymptomatic and maintains high CD4��� T cell counts. This tolerant profile is poorly understood and reminiscent of the widely studied nonprogressive disease model of SIV infection in natural hosts. Here, we identify transcriptome differences between rapid progressors (RPs) and viremic nonprogressors (VNPs) and highlight several genes relevant for the understanding of HIV-1-induced immunosuppression. RPs were characterized by a specific transcriptome profile of CD4��� and CD8��� T cells similar to that observed in pathogenic SIV-infected rhesus macaques. In contrast, VNPs exhibited lower expression of interferon-stimulated genes and shared a common gene regulation profile with nonpathogenic SIV-infected sooty mangabeys. A short list of genes associated with VNP, including CASP1, CD38, LAG3, TNFSF13B, SOCS1, and EEF1D, showed significant correlation with time to disease progression when evaluated in an independent set of CD4��� T cell expression data. This work characterizes 2 minimally studied clinical patterns of progression to AIDS, whose analysis may inform our understanding of HIV pathogenesis.

Skin-infiltrating T cells and cytokine expression in Icelandic horses affected with insect bite hypersensitivity: a possible role for regulatory T cells

Equine insect bite hypersensitivity (IBH) is a seasonally recurrent, pruritic skin disorder caused by an IgE-mediated reaction to salivary proteins of biting flies, predominantly of the genus Culicoides. The aim of this study was to define T cell subsets and cytokine profile in the skin of IBH-affected Icelandic horses with particular focus on the balance between T helper (Th) 1, Th2 and T regulatory (Treg) cells. Distribution and number of CD4+, CD8+ and Forkhead box P3 (FoxP3)+ T cells were characterized by immunohistochemical staining in lesional and non-lesional skin of moderately and severely IBH-affected horses (n=14) and in the skin of healthy control horses (n=10). Using real-time quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction, mRNA expression levels of Th2 cytokines (Interleukin (IL)-4, IL-5, IL-13), Th1 cytokines (Interferon-gamma), regulatory cytokines (Transforming Growth Factor beta1, IL-10) and the Treg transcription factor FoxP3 were measured in skin and blood samples. Furthermore, Culicoides nubeculosus specific serum IgE levels were assessed. Lesions of IBH-affected horses contained significantly higher numbers of CD4+ cells than skin of healthy control horses. Furthermore, the total number of T cells (CD4+ and CD8+) was significantly increased in lesional compared to non-lesional skin and there was a tendency (p=0.07) for higher numbers of CD4+ cells in lesional compared to non-lesional skin. While the number of FoxP3+ T cells did not differ significantly between the groups, the ratio of Foxp3 to CD4+ cells was significantly lower in lesions of severely IBH-affected horses than in moderately affected or control horses. Interestingly, differences in FoxP3 expression were more striking at the mRNA level. FoxP3 mRNA levels were significantly reduced in lesional skin, compared both to non-lesional and to healthy skin and were also significantly lower in non-lesional compared to healthy skin. Expression levels of IL-13, but not IL-4 or IL-5, were significantly elevated in lesional and non-lesional skin of IBH-affected horses. IL-10 levels were lower in lesional compared to non-lesional skin (p=0.06) and also lower (p=0.06) in the blood of IBH-affected than of healthy horses. No significant changes were observed regarding blood expression levels of Th1 and Th2 cytokines or FoxP3. Finally, IBH-affected horses had significantly higher Culicoides nubeculosus specific serum IgE levels than control horses. The presented data suggest that an imbalance between Th2 and Treg cells is a characteristic feature in IBH. Treatment strategies for IBH should thus aim at restoring the balance between Th2 and Treg cells.

Detection of perforin and granzyme B mRNA expressing cells in lichen sclerosus

Granzyme B and perforin messenger RNA (mRNA) expression has been shown to be a specific in vivo activation marker for cytotoxic cells. The aim of this study was to assess the contribution of cell-mediated cytotoxicity in the pathogenesis of lichen sclerosus. In situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry were performed on serial tissue sections of lesional skin biopsies and normal skin as control. Immunohistochemical staining showed that the cellular infiltrate of diseased skin consisted predominantly of T cells (CD3+) and some B cells (CD20+). Among T cells CD4+ and CD8+ cells were found in about equal numbers. In normal skin samples perforin and granzyme B mRNA expressing cells were only rarely found. In contrast, in biopsies from diseased skin a high percentage of infiltrating cells expressed mRNA for perforin and granzyme B. The perforin and granzyme B expressing cells were found in the dermal infiltrate and intraepidermally in close proximity to keratinocytes suggesting in situ activation of these cells. These findings provide evidence that cell-mediated cytotoxicity plays a significant role in tissue destruction in lichen sclerosus.

CC chemokines and the receptors CCR3 and CCR5 are differentially expressed in the nonneoplastic leukocytic infiltrates of Hodgkin disease

Lymph nodes with Hodgkin disease (HD) harbor few neoplastic cells in a marked leukocytic infiltrate. Since chemokines are likely to be involved in the recruitment of these leukocytes, the expression of potentially relevant chemokines and chemokine receptors were studied in lymph nodes from 24 patients with HD and in 5 control lymph nodes. The expression of regulated on activation, normal T cell expressed and secreted (RANTES), monocyte chemotactic protein (MCP)-1, macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP)-1alpha, and MIP-1beta was analyzed by in situ hybridization and that of CCR3 and CCR5 by immunohistochemistry and flow cytometry. It was found that, overall, the expression of all 4 chemokines was markedly enhanced, but the cellular source was different. RANTES was expressed almost exclusively by T cells whereas the expression of MCP-1, MIP-1alpha, and MIP-1beta was confined largely to macrophages. In control lymph nodes, chemokine expression was low, with the exception of MIP-1alpha in macrophages. CCR3 and CCR5 were highly expressed in T cells of HD involved but not of control lymph nodes. CCR3 was equally distributed in CD4+ and CD8+ cells, but CCR5 was associated largely with CD4+ cells. In HD lymph nodes, CCR3 and CCR5 were also expressed in B cells, which normally do not express these receptors. All these chemokines and receptors studied, by contrast, were absent in the neoplastic cells. It was concluded that chemokines are involved in the formation of the HD nonneoplastic leukocytic infiltrate. Expression of CCR3 and CCR5 appears to be characteristic of HD, but the roles of these receptors' up-regulation for the disease process remain unclear.

A comparative study of the expression of cytotoxic proteins in allergic contact dermatitis and psoriasis: spongiotic skin lesions in allergic contact dermatitis are highly infiltrated by T cells expressing perforin and granzyme B

Recent reports indicate that cytotoxic T cells are critically involved in contact hypersensitivity reactions in animals. In this study we sought to investigate the in vivo expression of cytotoxic granule proteins in the elicitation phase of allergic contact dermatitis in humans. Skin biopsy specimens were obtained from patients with allergic contact dermatitis (n = 8) and psoriasis (n = 6) and from controls with normal skin (n = 6). Expression of perforin and granzyme B was investigated by in situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry. In contrast to normal skin and psoriasis, a significant enhancement of perforin and granzyme B gene expression and immunoreactivity was observed in the mononuclear cell infiltrate of allergic contact dermatitis. Immunoreactivity for perforin and granzyme B was mainly found in the cytoplasm of lymphocytic cells, which were located in the dense perivascular infiltrate as well as at sites of marked spongiosis in the epidermis. Double immunostaining revealed that both CD4+ and CD8+ T cells are capable of expressing perforin and granzyme B. In conclusion, our data suggest that T-cell-mediated mechanisms involving cytotoxic granule proteins may elicit epidermal cell injury in vivo and thereby strongly contribute to the development of allergic contact dermatitis in humans.

Transport and uptake of immunogenic lipids

An increasing number of lipid mediators have been identified as key modulators of immunity. Among these is a family of glycolipids capable of cellular uptake, loading onto the MHC-like molecule CD1d and stimulation of NKT cells. NKT cells are particularly interesting because they bridge innate and adaptive immunity by coordinating the early events of dendritic cell maturation, recruitment of NK cells, CD4 and CD8 T cells, and B cells at the site of microbial injury. As such, their therapeutic manipulation could be of the greatest interest in vaccine design or active immunotherapy. However, the use of NKT cells as cellular adjuvant of immunity in the clinic will require a better knowledge of the pharmacology of lipid agonists in order to optimize their action and avoid potential unseen off-target effects. We have been studying extracellular transport and cellular uptake of NKT agonists for the past few years. This field is confronted to a very limited prior knowledge and a small set of usable tools. New technology must be put in place and adapted to answering basic immunology questions related to NKT cells. The intimate link between the pharmacology of glycolipids and lipid metabolism makes us believe that great variations of bioactivity could be seen in the general population when NKT agonists are used therapeutically.

IMMUNE MODULATION OF THE MYCOBACTERIUM TUBERCULOSIS GRANULOMATOUS RESPONSE

Tuberculosis (TB) remains a major public health burden. The immunocompetant host responds to Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) infection by the formation of granulomas, which initially prevent uncontrolled bacterial proliferation and dissemination. However, increasing evidence suggests that granuloma formation promotes persistence of the organism by physically separating infected cells from effector lymphocytes and by inducing a state of non-replicating persistence in the bacilli, making them resistant to the action of antibiotics. Additionally, immune-mediated tissue destruction likely facilitates disease transmission. The granulomatous response is in part due to mycobacterial glycolipid antigens. Therefore, studies were first undertaken to determine the innate mechanisms of mycobacterial cord factor trehalose-6���6-dimycolate (TDM) on granuloma formation. Investigations using knock-out mice suggest that TNF-a is involved in the initiation of the granulomatous response, complement factor C5a generates granuloma cohesiveness, and IL-6 is necessary for maintenance of an established granulomatous responses. Studies were next performed to determine the ability of lactoferrin to modulate the immune response and pathology to mycobacterial cord factor. Lactoferrin is an iron-binding glycoprotein with immunomodulatory properties that decrease tissue damage and promote Th1 responses. Mice challenged with TDM and treated with lactoferrin had decreased size and numbers of granulomas at the peak of the granulomatous response, accompanied by increased IL-10 and TGF-b production. Finally, the ability of lactoferrin to serve as a novel therapeutic for the treatment of TB was performed by aerosol challenging mice with MTB and treating them with lactoferrin added to the drinking water. Mice given tap water had lung log10 CFUs of 7.5 �� 0.3 at week 3 post-infection. Lung CFUs were significantly decreased in mice given lactoferrin starting the day of infection (6.4 �� 0.7) and mice started therapeutically on lactoferrin at day 7 after established infection (6.5 �� 0.4). Total lung inflammation in lactoferrin treated mice was significantly decreased, with fewer areas of macrophages, increased total lymphocytes, and increased numbers of CD4+ and CD8+ cells. The lungs of lactoferrin treated mice had increased CD4+ IFN-g+ cells and IL-17 producing cells on ELISpot analysis. It is hypothesized that lactoferrin decreases bacterial burden during MTB infection by early induction of Th1 responses.

Immunology and HIV expression in skin, in vitro, and in response to ultraviolet light

HIV can enter the body through Langerhans cells, dendritic cells, and macrophages in skin mucosa, and spreads by lysis or by syncytia. Since UVL induces of HIV-LTR in transgenic mice mid in cell lines in vitro, we hypothesized that UVB may affect HIV in people and may affect HIV in T cells in relation to dose, apoptosis, and cytokine expression. To determine whether HIV is induced by UVL in humans, a clinical study of HIV+ patients with psoriasis or pruritus was conducted during six weeks of UVB phototherapy, Controls were HIV-psoriasis patients receiving UVB and HIV+ KS subjects without UVB.Blood and skin biopsy specimens were collected at baseline, weeks 2 and 6, and 4 weeks after UVL. AIDS-related skin diseases showed unique cytokine profiles in skin and serum at baseline. In patients and controls on phototherapy, we observed the following: (1) CD4+ and CD8+ T cell numbers are not significantly altered during phototherapy, (2) p24 antigen levels, and also HIV plasma levels increase in patients not on antiviral therapy, (3) HIV-RNA levels in serum or plasma. (viral load) can either increase or decrease depending on the patient's initial viral load, presence of antivirals, and skin type, (4) HIV-RNA levels in the periphery are inversely correlated to serum IL-10 and (5) HIV+ cell in skin increase after UVL at 2 weeks by RT-PCR in situ hybridization mid we negatively correlated with peripheral load. To understand the mechanisms of UVB mediated HIV transcription, we treated Jurkat T cell lines stably transfected with an HIV-LTR-luciferase plasmid only or additionally with tat-SV-40 early promoter with UVB (2 J/m2 to 200 J/m2), 50 to 200 ng/ml rhIL-10, and 10 ��g/ml PHA as control. HIV promoter activity was measured by luciferase normalized to protein. Time points up to 72 hours were analyzed for HIV-LTR activation. HIV-LTR activation had the following properties: (1) requires the presence of Tat, (2) occurs at 24 hours, and (3) is UVB dose dependent. Changes in viability by MTS (3-(4,5-dimethyhhiazol-2-y1)-5-(3-carboxymethoxyphonyl)-2-(4-sulfophenyl)-2H-tetrazolium) mixed with PMS (phenazine methosulfate) solution and apoptosis by propidium iodide and annexin V using flow cytometry (FC) were seen in irradiated Jurkat cells. We determined that (1) rhIL-10 moderately decreased HIV-LTR activation if given before radiation and greatly decreases it when given after UVB, (2) HIV-LTR activation was low at doses of greater than 70 J/m2, compared to activation at 50 J/m2. (Abstract shortened by UMI.)^

Regulation of hematopoietic and leukemic stem cells by the immune system.

Hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) are rare, multipotent cells that generate via progenitor and precursor cells of all blood lineages. Similar to normal hematopoiesis, leukemia is also hierarchically organized and a subpopulation of leukemic cells, the leukemic stem cells (LSCs), is responsible for disease initiation and maintenance and gives rise to more differentiated malignant cells. Although genetically abnormal, LSCs share many characteristics with normal HSCs, including quiescence, multipotency and self-renewal. Normal HSCs reside in a specialized microenvironment in the bone marrow (BM), the so-called HSC niche that crucially regulates HSC survival and function. Many cell types including osteoblastic, perivascular, endothelial and mesenchymal cells contribute to the HSC niche. In addition, the BM functions as primary and secondary lymphoid organ and hosts various mature immune cell types, including T and B cells, dendritic cells and macrophages that contribute to the HSC niche. Signals derived from the HSC niche are necessary to regulate demand-adapted responses of HSCs and progenitor cells after BM stress or during infection. LSCs occupy similar niches and depend on signals from the BM microenvironment. However, in addition to the cell types that constitute the HSC niche during homeostasis, in leukemia the BM is infiltrated by activated leukemia-specific immune cells. Leukemic cells express different antigens that are able to activate CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells. It is well documented that activated T cells can contribute to the control of leukemic cells and it was hoped that these cells may be able to target and eliminate the therapy-resistant LSCs. However, the actual interaction of leukemia-specific T cells with LSCs remains ill-defined. Paradoxically, many immune mechanisms that evolved to activate emergency hematopoiesis during infection may actually contribute to the expansion and differentiation of LSCs, promoting leukemia progression. In this review, we summarize mechanisms by which the immune system regulates HSCs and LSCs.