Bioethics and biotechnology

This paper examines the practice and products of biotechnology from the viewpoint of bioethics, looking at four cases where aquatic biotechnology and bioethics intersect. The four cases applied are: Case 1. Genetic modification of animals; Case 2. Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO) as food; Case 3. Environmental applications of GMOs; Case 4. Intellectual property production for GMOs and DNA sequences.

Historical data reveal power-law dispersal patterns of invasive aquatic species.

Understanding how invasive species spread is of particular concern in the current era of globalisation and rapid environmental change. The occurrence of super-diffusive movements within the context of Lévy flights has been discussed with respect to particle physics, human movements, microzooplankton, disease spread in global epidemiology and animal foraging behaviour. Super-diffusive movements provide a theoretical explanation for the rapid spread of organisms and disease, but their applicability to empirical data on the historic spread of organisms has rarely been tested. This study focuses on the role of long-distance dispersal in the invasion dynamics of aquatic invasive species across three contrasting areas and spatial scales: open ocean (north-east Atlantic), enclosed sea (Mediterranean) and an island environment (Ireland). Study species included five freshwater plant species, Azolla filiculoides, Elodea canadensis, Lagarosiphon major, Elodea nuttallii and Lemna minuta; and ten species of marine algae, Asparagopsis armata, Antithamnionella elegans, Antithamnionella ternifolia, Codium fragile, Colpomenia peregrina, Caulerpa taxifolia, Dasysiphonia sp., Sargassum muticum, Undaria pinnatifida and Womersleyella setacea. A simulation model is constructed to show the validity of using historical data to reconstruct dispersal kernels. Lévy movement patterns similar to those previously observed in humans and wild animals are evident in the re-constructed dispersal pattern of invasive aquatic species. Such patterns may be widespread among invasive species and could be exacerbated by further development of trade networks, human travel and environmental change. These findings have implications for our ability to predict and manage future invasions, and improve our understanding of the potential for spread of organisms including infectious diseases, plant pests and genetically modified organisms.

Excluding Coexistence of GMOs? The Impact of the EU Commission's 2010 Recommendation on Coexistence

In the midst of the European Union (EU) genetically modified organisms (GMOs) regime, coexistence of GM and non-GM crops alongside each other remains technically within the competence of the Member States. Post EU authorization of a GM crop, Member States may legally take appropriate measures to limit or prevent the presence of GMOs within non-GM crops. In July 2010, as part of a Cultivation Package, the Commission created a new Coexistence Recommendation that supports a flexible approach to more stringent coexistence measures by the States, while attempting to maintain control over the legitimate objectives justifying the measures. This article analyzes the impact of the 2010 Recommendation upon coexistence in the context of the existing practices and the previous 2003 Recommendation, taking into account its status as a soft law document and the ‘domino effect’. It is argued that the 2010 Recommendation may have greater practical and legal ramifications for coexistence than might first be thought. In attempting to create guidelines that allow a more flexible and inclusive approach towards national measures, the 2010 Recommendation may act as a catalyst to eventually exclude GM cultivation within Member States.

Coexistence of GMOs in the EU – A Veritable Choice?

This chapter examines the issue of coexistence of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) alongside conventional and organic crops. The central focus is on whether there is a veritable opportunity for coexistence of all three types of crops, which allows for freedom of choice by both farmers and consumers. It commences by considering the nature of the general GM regime, the relationship between the frameworks for cultivation and the use and sale of GM food and feed, and the main elements of the cultivation regime. In light of this, the concept of coexistence is considered, with an evaluation of both the legal and practical elements. Although the general GM regime is controlled at an EU level, coexistence is apparently left to the Member States who may take appropriate coexistence measures. Nonetheless, the Commission has created Recommendations that are to guide the Member States in their choice of measures. To a great extent, what is considered ‘appropriate’ is to be determined by the economic impact upon the farmers and the relationship with the labelling thresholds. The chapter evaluates the future of coexistence, bearing in mind the continued use of the safeguard clauses, the declaration of ‘GM-free’ regions, the potential for national ‘opt-outs’ and the general practical challenges of maintaining coexistence including the ‘domino effect’. Overall, it is arguable that coexistence is a misnomer and that if the term’s meaning is strictly maintained then veritable coexistence that allows for freedom of choice by both farmers and consumers seems unattainable. Although not directly controlled by CAP, there are strong areas of overlap and they share a number of similar objectives; the chapter will conclude by considering whether the approaches in relation to CAP and the cultivation of GMOs are converging or diverging.

Historical data reveal power-law dispersal patterns of invasive aquatic species

Understanding how invasive species spread is of particular concern in the current era of globalisation and rapid environmental change. The occurrence of super-diffusive movements within the context of Lévy flights has been discussed with respect to particle physics, human movements, microzooplankton, disease spread in global epidemiology and animal foraging behaviour. Super-diffusive movements provide a theoretical explanation for the rapid spread of organisms and disease, but their applicability to empirical data on the historic spread of organisms has rarely been tested. This study focuses on the role of long-distance dispersal in the invasion dynamics of aquatic invasive species across three contrasting areas and spatial scales: open ocean (north-east Atlantic), enclosed sea (Mediterranean) and an island environment (Ireland). Study species included five freshwater plant species, Azolla filiculoides, Elodea canadensis, Lagarosiphon major, Elodea nuttallii and Lemna minuta; and ten species of marine algae, Asparagopsis armata, Antithamnionella elegans, Antithamnionella ternifolia, Codium fragile, Colpomenia peregrina, Caulerpa taxifolia, Dasysiphonia sp., Sargassum muticum, Undaria pinnatifida and Womersleyella setacea. A simulation model is constructed to show the validity of using historical data to reconstruct dispersal kernels. Lévy movement patterns similar to those previously observed in humans and wild animals are evident in the re-constructed dispersal pattern of invasive aquatic species. Such patterns may be widespread among invasive species and could be exacerbated by further development of trade networks, human travel and environmental change. These findings have implications for our ability to predict and manage future invasions, and improve our understanding of the potential for spread of organisms including infectious diseases, plant pests and genetically modified organisms.

Manual de biossegurança da Embrapa Meio Ambiente: boas práticas na manipulação e condução de experimentos com organismos geneticamente modificados (OGM), do Grupo 1 e seus derivados.

Resumo: Este manual constitui um guia orientador para informar, atualizar e despertar o senso crítico dos empregados e colaboradores da Embrapa Meio Ambiente durante a realização das suas atividades de pesquisa que envolvem organismos geneticamente modificados (OGM) e seus derivados.

Incidence de la réglementation actuelle et future des aliments génétiquement modifiés sur leur exploitation

"Mémoire présenté à la Faculté des études supérieures en vue de l'obtention du grade de Maître en droit (LL.M)"

La biotechnologie dans l’agriculture : une étude du contenu de la presse écrite argentine des années 1999 à 2006

En Argentine, la biotechnologie agricole, spécialement le soya transgénique, a été adoptée de façon fulgurante et elle a provoqué un fort choc dans l’économie nationale et dans la société. Actuellement, dû à la gravité des conséquences de ce phénomène, les médias, et la presse en particulier, ont fait écho du débat. Le but général de cette étude est d’analyser le débat de société sur ce phénomène dans la presse écrite argentine. Pour ce faire, trois objectifs spécifiques ont été retenus : dresser un portrait général du discours; comprendre le contexte politique et économique qui a permis l’insertion de la biotechnologie agricole en Argentine; et analyser les enjeux socioéthiques subjacents au problème des biotechnologies. Pour répondre à ces objectifs, on a effectué une analyse de contenu du discours social circonscrit à la presse écrite argentine entre les années 1999- 2006. La démarche privilégiée inclut la classification des articles de journaux par l’utilisation de mots-clés et l’assignation à des catégories thématiques avec l’assistance des techniques d’analyse de texte par ordinateur. Les résultats de cette étude signalent pour la période étudiée une importante couverture journalistique des biotechnologies agricoles, couverture qui, en général, a été favorable. La quantité d’articles augmente avec les années et montre un virage important des sujets commerciaux à des questions politiques. Le débat autour des conséquences environnementales et sociales de l’application du nouveau modèle agricole sont pauvrement représentées et montrent une apparition plus tardive dans les journaux argentins. Cependant, cela pourrait s’expliquer par un déplacement dans l’axe de la discussion des biotechnologies vers la sojisation qui devient l’enjeu central du débat autour du phénomène agricole.

La protection légale des connaissances traditionnelles des peuples autochtones Mapuches, par rapport à l’utilisation des organismes génétiquement modifiés (OGM) au Chili

Devant le manque de ressources économiques et la pauvreté, les « OGM » apparaissent comme un outil visant à contribuer à la croissance économique et alimentaire, notamment dans les pays en voie de développement et sous-développés. Cependant, nous devons nous pencher sur un sujet tout aussi fondamental, à savoir la protection juridique, accordée par la législation tant nationale qu’internationale en lien avec les « connaissances traditionnelles » quand elles sont aux prises avec l’utilisation des OGM. Connaître cette interaction et évaluer ses effets sur la culture est un sujet d’une ampleur considérable à l’heure actuelle, principalement lorsque l’on considère les « savoirs locaux » comme des éléments fondamentaux pour la conservation de la « biodiversité » et le « développement durable ».

Análisis de la incidencia de la producción de biocombustibles a través de cultivos transgénicos en la seguridad alimentaria. Estudio de caso: Cultivos de soja transgénica en Argentina

La búsqueda de los Estados por mitigar su dependencia energética de las fuentes fósiles, ha traído consigo la búsqueda de energías alternativas, desencadenando en el uso y producción de biocombustibles. A su vez, la producción de estos últimos a través de cultivos transgénicos ha ido cobrando importancia en el escenario internacional. Esta opción se ha considerado como una salida al dilema de utilización de tierras "Biocombustible vs. Alimentos". En este contexto, el caso de Argentina, como uno de los mayores productores de cultivos transgénicos del mundo, entre los cuales se destaca la soja, se analiza en esta investigación por ser importante para determinar cuál es el impacto de los biocombustibles producidos a través de cultivos transgénicos en la seguridad alimentaria de la población.

Acción de organizaciones no gubernamentales frente a las semillas genéticamente modificadas en Colombia

Los efectos ambientales, económicos, sociales y culturales generados por las Semillas Genéticamente Modificadas-SGM y su control por empresas transnacionales como Monsanto, han incentivado la acción colectiva liderada por ONGs, tanto internacionalmente como en Colombia. El objetivo principal es analizar cómo la ONG “Semillas” ha incidido en las políticas colombianas relacionadas con la introducción y uso de SGM durante el periodo 2002-2013. Se centra en la Teoría de Redes Transnacionales de Defensa expuesta por M. Keck y K. Sikkink (1998). Además, se analiza el papel de las ONGs ambientales y las corporaciones transnacionales. El argumento central es que al crear vínculos con actores nacionales e internacionales y vincularse con redes y campañas con impacto transnacional, “Semillas” ha posicionado la lucha en contra de las SGM y ha logrado presionar al Estado influyendo parcialmente en sus políticas y leyes, al igual que en su posición y discurso frente al uso de SGM.

Impacto de las normas de ecoetiquetado de Japón y La Unión Europea, y la posición de Estados Unidos en este aspecto, en las exportaciones de organismos genéticamente modificados canadienses, en los últimos 10 años

La hipótesis de este trabajo de grado es el desarrollo de definiciones estándares de Estados Unidos, Japón y la Unión Europea en materia de ecoetiquetado, han dificultado el crecimiento de las exportaciones de Organismos Genéticamente Modificados canadienses y la aplicación de su estrategia