Characteristics of energy under-reporting in children and adolescents

Under-reporting (UR) of food intake is an issue of concern, as it may distort the relationships studied between diet and health. This topic has been scarcely addressed in children. The objective of the study was to assess the extent of UR in French children and investigate associated covariates. A total of 1455 children aged 3–17 years were taken from the nationally representative cross-sectional French étude Individuelle Nationale des Consommations Alimentaires (INCA2) dietary survey (2006–7). Food intake was reported in a 7 d diet record. Socio-economic status, sedentary behaviour, weight perception variables and food habits were collected by questionnaires. Weight and height were measured. Under-reporters were identified according to the Goldberg criterion adapted to children. Multivariate logistic regressions investigated the associations between UR and covariates. Rates of under-reporters were 4·9 and 26·0 % in children aged 3–10 and 11–17 years, respectively (P < 0·0001), without significant differences between boys and girls. Overall, UR was positively associated with a lower socio-economic status, overweight, skipping breakfast and dinner, a higher contribution of proteins to energy intake (EI), and a lower contribution of simple carbohydrates to EI. Under-reporters aged 3–10 years also had a higher sedentary behaviour and a lower snack-eating frequency. In adolescents, UR was also associated with a less-frequent school canteen attendance, a perception of being overweight, a wish to weigh less, and current and past restrictive diets. In conclusion, under-reporters differ from plausible reporters in several characteristics related to diet, lifestyle, weight status and socio-economic status. Therefore, it is important to consider this differential UR bias when investigating diet–disease associations in children.

Scores on the dietary guideline index for children and adolescents are associated with nutrient intake and socio-economic position but not adiposity 1-3

Diet quality indices reflect overall dietary patterns better than single nutrients or food groups. The study aims were to develop a measure of adherence with dietary guidelines applicable to child and adolescent populations in Australia and determine the association between index scores and food and nutrient intake, socio-demographic characteristics, and measures of adiposity. Data were analyzed from 4- to 16-y-old participants of the 2007 Australian Children’s Nutrition and Physical Activity Survey (n = 3416). The Dietary Guideline Index for Children and Adolescents (DGI-CA) comprises 11 components: 5 core food groups, wholegrain bread, reduced-fat dairy foods, extra foods (nutrient poor and high in fat, salt, and added sugar), healthy fats/oils, water, and diet variety (possible score of 100). The index criteria were age specific. The mean DGI-CA score was low (53.6 ± 0.4), similar between boys and girls, and differed by age; the youngest children scored higher than the oldest children (P < 0.0001). Higher DGI-CA scores were associated with lower energy intake, energy density, total and saturated fat, and sugar intake; higher protein, carbohydrate, fiber, calcium, iron, vitamin C, vitamin A, folate, phosphorous, magnesium, zinc, and iodine intakes; and a higher polyunsaturated:saturated fat ratio (P < 0.0001). DGI-CA scores were associated with socio-economic characteristics and measures of family circumstance. Weak positive associations were observed between DGI-CA score and BMI or waist circumference Z-scores in the 4- to 10-y and 12- to 16-y age groups only. This index is the first validated index in Australia and one of the few international indices to describe the diet quality of children and adolescents.

Dietary intake of fish and PUFA, and clinical depressive and anxiety disorders in women

Fish and PUFA consumption are thought to play a role in mental health; however, many studies do not take into account multiple sources of PUFA. The present study analysed data from a sample of 935 randomly selected, population-based women aged 20–93 years. A validated and comprehensive dietary questionnaire ascertained the consumption of n-3 and n-6 PUFA. Another assessed fish and energy intake and provided data for a dietary quality score. The General Health Questionnaire-12 (GHQ-12) measured psychological symptoms and a clinical interview (Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV-TR Research Version, Non-patient edition) assessed depressive and anxiety disorders. Median dietary intakes of long-chain n-3 fatty acids (310 mg/d) were below suggested dietary target levels. The only PUFA related to categorical depressive and anxiety disorders was DHA. There was a non-linear relationship between DHA intake and depression; those in the second tertile of DHA intake were nearly 70 % less likely to report a current depressive disorder compared to those in the first tertile. The relationship of DHA to anxiety disorders was linear; for those in the highest tertile of DHA intake, the odds for anxiety disorders were reduced by nearly 50 % after adjustments, including adjustment for diet quality scores, compared to the lowest tertile. Those who ate fish less than once per week had higher GHQ-12 scores, and this relationship was particularly obvious in smokers. These are the first observational data to indicate a role for DHA in anxiety disorders, but suggest that the relationship between DHA and depressive disorders may be non-linear.

The quality of dietary intake methodology and reporting in child and adolescent obesity intervention trials : a systematic review

Assessing dietary intake is important in evaluating childhood obesity intervention effectiveness. The purpose of this review was to evaluate the dietary intake methods and reporting in intervention studies that included a dietary component to treat overweight or obese children. A systematic review of studies published in the English language, between 1985 and August 2010 in health databases. The search identified 2,295 papers, of which 335 were retrieved and 31 met the inclusion criteria. Twenty-three studies reported energy intake as an outcome measure, 20 reported macronutrient intakes and 10 studies reported food intake outcomes. The most common dietary method employed was the food diary (n = 13), followed by 24-h recall (n = 5), food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) (n = 4) and dietary questionnaire (n = 4). The quality of the dietary intake methods reporting was rated as ‘poor’ in 15 studies (52%) and only 3 were rated as ‘excellent’. The reporting quality of FFQs tended to be higher than food diaries/recalls. Deficiencies in the quality of dietary intake methods reporting in child obesity studies were identified. Use of a dietary intake methods reporting checklist is recommended. This will enable the quality of dietary intake results to be evaluated, and an increased ability to replicate study methodology by other researchers.

The acute effects of caffeine in a sugar-sweetened beverage on energy consumption

Background: It has been suggested that those who are habitually high caffeine consumers ingest greater quantities of snack foods both in and outside the laboratory. Sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs) are a major contributor to caffeine consumption and evidence links SSB consumption with poor dietary intake.

Objective: To determine whether varying the concentration of caffeine in SSBs influences snack food consumption and energy intake.

Methods: Caffeine taste thresholds were assessed using the International Standards Organization method for assessing taste sensitivity. In a crossover study design, participants (n=23, 26±5 years old, 58% female) were provided with a standardized meal on 4 days and simultaneously consumed SSBs with varied levels of caffeine (0, 0.67, 1.16, and 1.65 mM). The intake of food and beverage was recorded following each meal session.

Results: A one way between groups analysis of variance revealed no significant main effect of caffeine concentration on consumption of SSBs [F (3, 92)=0.154, p=0.927] or food [F (3, 92)=0.305, p=0.822]. Pearson correlation analysis identified no significant correlations between the amount of food and SSB consumed (R=−0.031–0.415, p=0.062–0.893), or the amount of food and SSB consumed with body mass index and waist circumference (R=0.000 to −0.380, p=0.073–0.999). An individual's oral sensitivity to caffeine was not associated with SSB consumption (R=0.045 to −0.309, p=0.152–0.839) or the consumption of food (R=−0.052 to −0.327, p=0.128–0.812).

Conclusions: The concentration of caffeine in SSBs did not influence the amount of food or SSB consumed.

Is socioeconomic status associated with dietary sodium intake in Australian children? A cross-sectional study

Objective To assess the association between socioeconomic status (SES) and dietary sodium intake, and to identify if the major dietary sources of sodium differ by socioeconomic group in a nationally representative sample of Australian children.

Design Cross-sectional survey.

Setting 2007 Australian National Children's Nutrition and Physical Activity Survey.

Participants A total of 4487 children aged 2–16 years completed all components of the survey.

Primary and secondary outcome measures Sodium intake was determined via one 24 h dietary recall. The population proportion formula was used to identify the major sources of dietary salt. SES was defined by the level of education attained by the primary carer. In addition, parental income was used as a secondary indicator of SES.

Results Dietary sodium intake of children of low SES background was 2576 (SEM 42) mg/day (salt equivalent 6.6 (0.1) g/day), which was greater than that of children of high SES background 2370 (35) mg/day (salt 6.1 (0.1) g/day; p<0.001). After adjustment for age, gender, energy intake and body mass index, low SES children consumed 195 mg/day (salt 0.5 g/day) more sodium than high SES children (p<0.001). Low SES children had a greater intake of sodium from processed meat, gravies/sauces, pastries, breakfast cereals, potatoes and potato snacks (all p<0.05).

Conclusions Australian children from a low SES background have on average a 9% greater intake of sodium from food sources compared with those from a high SES background. Understanding the socioeconomic patterning of salt intake during childhood should be considered in interventions to reduce cardiovascular disease.

Dietary sodium intake is associated with total fluid and sugar-sweetened beverage consumption in US children and adolescents aged 2 - 18 y : NHANES 2005 - 2008

Background: Increasing dietary sodium drives the thirst response. Because sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs) are frequently consumed by children, sodium intake may drive greater consumption of SSBs and contribute to obesity risk.

Objective: We examined the association between dietary sodium, total fluid, and SSB consumption in a nationally representative sample of US children and adolescents aged 2–18 y.

Design: We analyzed cross-sectional data from NHANES 2005–2008. Dietary sodium, fluid, and SSB intakes were assessed with a 24-h dietary recall. Multiple regression analysis was used to assess associations between sodium, fluid, and SSBs adjusted for age, sex, race-ethnic group, body mass index (BMI), socioeconomic status (SES), and energy intake.

Results: Of 6400 participants, 51.3% (n = 3230) were males, and the average (±SEM) age was 10.1 ± 0.1 y. The average sodium intake was 3056 ± 48 mg/d (equivalent to 7.8 ± 0.1 g salt/d). Dietary sodium intake was positively associated with fluid consumption (r = 0.42, P < 0.001). After adjustment for age, sex, race-ethnic group, SES, and BMI, each additional 390 mg Na/d (1 g salt/d) was associated with a 74-g/d greater intake of fluid (P < 0.001). In consumers of SSBs (n = 4443; 64%), each additional 390 mg Na/d (1 g salt/d) was associated with a 32-g/d higher intake of SSBs (P < 0.001) adjusted for age, sex, race-ethnic group, SES, and energy intake.

Conclusions: Dietary sodium is positively associated with fluid consumption and predicted SSB consumption in consumers of SSBs. The high dietary sodium intake of US children and adolescents may contribute to a greater consumption of SSBs identifying a possible link between dietary sodium intake and excess energy intake.

Spatial variation in tuber depletion by swans explained by differences in net intake rates

We tested whether the spatial variation in resource depletion by Tundra Swans (Cygnus columbianus) foraging on belowground tubers of sago pondweed (Potamogeton pectinatus) was caused by differences in net energy intake rates. The variation in giving-up densities within the confines of one lake was nearly eightfold, the giving-up density being positively related to water depth and, to a lesser extent, the silt content of the sediment. The swans' preference (measured as cumulative foraging pressure) was negatively related to these variables. We adjusted a model developed for diving birds to predict changes in the time allocation of foraging swans with changes in power requirements and harvest rate. First, we compared the behavior of free-living swans foraging in shallow and deep water, where they feed by head-dipping and up-ending, respectively. Up-ending swans had 1.3-2.1 times longer feeding times than head-dipping swans. This was contrary to our expectation, since the model predicted a decrease in feeding time with an increase in feeding power. However, up-ending swans also had 1.9 times longer trampling times than headdipping swans. The model predicted a strong positive correlation between trampling time and feeding time, and the longer trampling times may thus have masked any effect of an increase in feeding power. Heart rate measurements showed that trampling was the most energetically costly part of foraging. However, because the feeding time and trampling time changed concurrently, the rate of energy expenditure was only slightly higher in deep water (1.03-1.06 times). This is a conservative estimate since it does not take into account that the feeding costs of up-ending are possibly higher than that of head-dipping. Second, we compared captive swans foraging on sandy and clayey sediments. We found that the harvest rate on clayey sediment was only 0.6 times that on sandy sediment and that the power requirements for foraging were 1.2-1.4 times greater. Our results are in qualitative agreement with the hypothesis that the large spatial variation in giving-up densities was caused by differences in net rates of energy intake. This potentially has important implications for the prey dynamics, because plant regrowth has been shown to be related to the same habitat factors (water depth and sediment type).

Growth-rate associated changes in the energy-requirements of tern chicks

To obtain infonnation on the energetic implications of intraspecific growth rate differences we measured the energy requirement for development in chicks of Common Tern Sterna hirundo and Sandwich Tern S. sandvicensis under laboratory conditions. Both maximum (kJ.day-l) and total gross energy intake for development (kJ during prefledging period) increased with growth rate and were reduced by almost 40% and 25%, respectively, in the slowest compared to the fastest growing individuals in each of the two species. These results imply that the range of food availability within which a chick can grow to adulthood, is wider than hitherto believed. However, one should bear in mind that slow growth also may result in higher nestling and postfledging mortality.

Habitat switching by Bewick's swans: Maximization of average long-term energy gain?

1. In a system where depletion drives a habitat shift, the hypothesis was tested that animals switch habitat as soon as the average daily net energy intake (or gain) drops below that attainable in the alternative habitat.

2. The study was performed in the Lauwersmeer area. Upon arrival during the autumn migration, Bewick's swans first feed on below-ground tubers of fennel pondweed on the lake, but subsequently switched to feeding on harvest remains in sugar beet fields.

3. The daily energy intake was estimated by multiplying the average time spent foraging per day with the instantaneous energy intake rate while foraging. In the case of pondweed feeding, the latter was estimated from the functional response and the depletion of tuber biomass. In the case of beet feeding, it was estimated from dropping production rate. Gross energy intake was converted to metabolizable energy intake using the assimilation as determined in digestion trials. The daily energy expenditure was estimated by the time-energy budget method. Energetic costs were determined using heart rate.

4. The daily gain of pondweed feeding at the median date of the habitat switch (i.e. when 50% of the swans had switched) was compared with that of beet feeding. The daily gain of beet feeding was calculated for two strategies depending on the night activity on the lake: additional pondweed feeding (mixed feeding) or sleeping (pure beet feeding).

5. The majority of the swans switched when the daily gain they could achieve by staying on the pondweed bed fell just below the average daily gain of pure beet feeders. However, mixed feeders would attain an average daily gain considerably above that of pondweed feeders. A sensitivity analysis showed that this result was robust.

6. We therefore reject the hypothesis that the habitat switch by swans can be explained by simple long-term energy rate maximization. State-dependency, predation risk, and protein requirements are put forward as explanations for the delay in habitat switch.

Pro-inflammatory dietary intake as a risk factor for CVD in men: a 5-year longitudinal study

Convincing evidence has identified inflammation as an initiator of atherosclerosis, underpinning CVD. We investigated (i) whether dietary inflammation, as measured by the 'dietary inflammatory index (DII)', was predictive of 5-year CVD in men and (ii) its predictive ability compared with that of SFA intake alone. The sample consisted of 1363 men enrolled in the Geelong Osteoporosis Study who completed an FFQ at baseline (2001-2006) (excluding participants who were identified as having previous CVD). DII scores were computed from participants' reported intakes of carbohydrate, micronutrients and glycaemic load. DII scores were dichotomised into a pro-inflammatory diet (positive values) or an anti-inflammatory diet (negative values). The primary outcome was a formal diagnosis of CVD resulting in hospitalisation over the 5-year study period. In total, seventy-six events were observed during the 5-year follow-up period. Men with a pro-inflammatory diet at baseline were twice as likely to experience a CVD event over the study period (OR 2·07; 95 % CI 1·20, 3·55). This association held following adjustment for traditional CVD risk factors and total energy intake (adjusted OR 2·00; 95 % CI 1·03, 3·96). This effect appeared to be stronger with the inclusion of an age-by-DII score interaction. In contrast, SFA intake alone did not predict 5-year CVD events after adjustment for covariates (adjusted OR 1·40; 95 % CI 0·73, 2·70). We conclude that an association exists between a pro-inflammatory diet and CVD in Australian men. CVD clinical guidelines and public health recommendations may have to expand to include dietary patterns in the context of vascular inflammation.

Energy and lysine for broilers from 44 to 55 days of age

An experiment was conducted to evaluate the performance and carcass yield of broilers at 55 days of age fed diets with different levels of metabolizable energy and lysine. Evaluated data of performance were weight gain, feed intake, energy intake, lysine intake, caloric conversion and feed conversion. Carcass assessment was performed based on data from carcass yield, breast weight, whole wings, whole legs, back, head + neck, feet and abdominal fat. A 3 x 3 factorial arrangement was used, with 3 levels of metabolizable energy (3,200; 3,400 and 3,600 kcal ME/kg) and 3 lysine levels (0.95%; 1.05% and 1.15%). There was no interaction between the two factors. Nevertheless, increasing levels of metabolizable energy improved weight gain (745 g; 841 g and 910 g, respectively) and feed intake was higher in broilers receiving the diets with 3,200 and 3,600 kcal ME/kg. Overall performance was not affected by lysine levels. Feed conversion values were 2.69, 2.42 and 2.14 for birds fed diets with 3,200; 3,400 and 3,600 kcal ME/kg, respectively. Carcass yield and breast weight increased with higher levels of energy and lysine in the diets.

Effects of energy level in finisher diets and slaughter age of on the performance and carcass yield in broiler chickens

Male broilers were used to evaluate the effects of different energy levels in finisher diets and age of slaughter on performance, production pattern and carcass yield. Experimental design was a 2x3 factorial arrangement: energy level (ME) in the finisher diet (3,200 and 3,600 kcal ME/kg) and age of slaughter (42, 49 and 56 days), resulting in six treatments with four replicates. The finisher diet was fed only in the last week of the growing period. Characteristics evaluated were feed consumption (FC), body weight gain (WG), feed conversion (FC), energy intake (EI), caloric conversion (CC), efficiency production index, production pattern, and carcass yield. The results showed better WG and CC for broilers fed 3,200 kcal ME/kg finisher diet. Broilers slaughtered at 42 and 49 days of age had better performance and higher annual production than broilers slaughtered at 56 days of age. Carcass yield was influenced by slaughter age and better breast yield was seen at 49 and 56 days than at 42 days of age. It was concluded that 3,200 kcal ME/kg induced the best overall performance. Poultry houses were efficiently used when broilers were slaughtered at 42 days of age. Meat:bone ratio was improved for broilers slaughtered at 49 and 56 days of age.