Spontaneous transitions in the coordination of a whole body task

This paper describes an example of spontaneous transitions between qualitatively different coordination patterns during a cyclic lifting and lowering task. Eleven participants performed 12 trials of repetitive lifting and lowering in a ramp protocol in which the height of the lower shelf was raised or lowered I cm per cycle between 10 and 50 cm. Two distinct patterns of coordination were evident: a squat technique in which moderate range of hip, knee and ankle movement was utilised and ankle plantar-flexion occurred simultaneously with knee and hip extension; and a stoop technique in which the range of knee movement was reduced and knee and hip extension was accompanied by simultaneous ankle dorsi-flexion. Abrupt transitions from stoop to squat techniques were observed during descending trials, and from squat to stoop during ascending trials. Indications of hysteresis was observed in that transitions were more frequently observed during descending trials, and the average shelf height at the transition was 5 cm higher during ascending trials. The transitions may be a consequence of a trade-off between the biomechanical advantages of each technique and the influence of the lift height on this trade-off. (C) 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Cultural and Genetic Influences on the “Biological Standard of Living”

This study suggests an improvement of a popular measure of living standards, namely the biological standard of living. One influence on it is a population's consumption pattern. Since there are different dietary patterns all over the world, researchers estimate the influences of national diets on final average male height. These habits are predominantly related to income, but also to genetics, cultural history, and decisions regarding whether to trade or consume high-quality foodstuffs. Systematic differences are found when analyzing protein-consumption habits among 51 countries between the 1960s and the 1980s. The author calculates metric correction values which can facilitate international comparisons of male average height. While the proposed correction values make a little difference on average, they can be valuable in a comparison of countries with markedly different dietary patterns.

The role of secreted frizzled-related protein 2 expression in prostate cancer

AIMS: Improved prostate cancer (PCa)-specific biomarkers are urgently required to distinguish between indolent and aggressive disease, in order to avoid overtreatment. In this study, we investigated the prostatic tissue expression of secreted frizzled-related protein (SFRP)-2.

METHODS AND RESULTS: Following immunohistochemical analysis on PCa tissue microarrays with samples from 216 patients, strong/moderate SFRP-2 expression was observed in epithelial cells of benign prostatic hyperplasia, and negative/weak SFRP-2 expression was observed in the majority of tumour epithelia. However, among Gleason grade 5 carcinomas, 40% showed strong/moderate SFRP-2 expression and 60% showed negative SFRP-2 expression in epithelial cells. Further microscopic evaluation of Gleason grade 5 tumours revealed different morphological patterns, corresponding with differential SFRP-2 expression. The first subgroup (referred to as Type A) appeared to have a morphologically solid growth pattern, whereas the second subgroup (referred to as Type B) appeared to have a more diffuse pattern. Furthermore, 100% (4/4) of Type A patients experienced biochemical recurrence, as compared with 0% (0/6) of Type B patients.

CONCLUSIONS: These results imply: (i) that there is a loss of SFRP-2 expression from benign to malignant prostate glands; and (ii) differential SFRP-2 expression among two possible subgroups of Gleason grade 5 tumours.

Diversity and biology of polychaeta of Diopatra Genus

Os anelídeos poliquetas são elementos importantes em ambientes estuarinos e costeiros, pela sua elevada biodiversidade e abundância e pelo papel que têm nas cadeias tróficas. Algumas espécies são intensivamente exploradas para serem utilizadas como isco na pesca desportiva e profissional, como é o caso de Diopatra neapolitana. Apesar da importância económica, existem poucos estudos sobre a sua biologia e ecologia. No decorrer deste estudo foram identificadas duas outras espécies do género Diopatra em Portugal: D. marocensis, inicialmente descrita para a costa de Marrocos e cuja distribuição actual se sabe estender-se a toda a costa Portuguesa e Norte de Espanha e, D. micrura, espécie nova para a ciência. O presente estudo tem como objectivos principais estudar a diversidade e reprodução do género Diopatra, bem como a capacidade de regeneração da espécie D. neapolitana. Este trabalho aborda a distribuição espacial de D. marocensis ao longo da costa Portuguesa e descreve a espécie D. micrura, uma nova espécie do género Diopatra Audouin and Milne Edwards, 1833. As três espécies coabitam em águas transicionais, onde as espécies D. micrura e D. marocensis facilmente se confundem com juvenis de D. neapolitana. Foi realizada uma comparação morfológica e genética entre as três espécies. A espécie D. neapolitana coexiste em algumas áreas da Ria de Aveiro com a D. marocensis. Apesar destas duas espécies apresentarem padrões reprodutivos muito diferentes, Maio a Agosto é o período principal para a reprodução de ambas as espécies. D. neapolitana apresenta um desenvolvimento larvar planctónico, e os óocitos presentes na cavidade celómica são esverdeados e apresentam um diâmetro de 40-240 μm (média = 164.39±40.79 μm) e as fêmeas contêm no celoma milhares de óocitos. Contrariamente, a espécie D. marocensis reproduz-se por desenvolvimento directo no interior do tubo parental. Os óocitos observados no celoma são amarelos com um diâmetro entre 180 e 740 μm (média = 497.65 ± 31.38 μm) e o seu número varia entre 44 e 624 (276.85 ± 161.54). Por seu turno, o número de ovos observados no interior dos tubos varia entre 75 e 298, com um diâmetro entre 600 e 660 μm, e o número de larvas entre 60 e 194. A proporção machos: fêmeas foi de 1:1 para a população de D. neapolitana e entre 1:2 e 1:4 para a população de D. marocensis, em que as fêmeas dominam a população durante todo o ano. O estudo da capacidade de regeneração da espécie D. neapolitana, avaliada a partir de experiências de laboratório, revelou que esta espécie é capaz de sobreviver à perda de alguns setígeros. Durante a captura de D. neapolitana para vender como isco são normalmente cortados mais de 20 setígeros e de acordo com os nossos resultados a extremidade posterior que fica no tubo não é capaz de regenerar a extremidade anterior; a espécie consegue no entanto recuperar de ataques por predadores.

Evolution and functional relevance of Ataxin-3 paralogues

O gene ataxin-3 (ATXN3; 14q32.1) codifica uma proteína expressa ubiquamente, envolvida na via ubiquitina-proteassoma e na repressão da transcrição. Grande relevância tem sido dada ao gene ATXN3 após a identificação de uma expansão (CAG)n na sua região codificante, responsável pela ataxia mais comum em todo o mundo, SCA3 ou doença de Machado-Joseph (DMJ). A DMJ é uma doença neurodegenerativa, autossómica dominante, de início tardio. O tamanho do alelo expandido explica apenas uma parte do pleomorfismo da doença, evidenciando a importância do estudo de outros modificadores. Em doenças de poliglutaminas (poliQ), a toxicidade é causada por um ganho de função da proteína expandida; no entanto, a proteína normal parece ser, também, um dos agentes modificadores da patogénese. O gene ATXN3 possui dois parálogos humanos gerados por retrotransposição: ataxin-3 like (ATXN3L) no cromossoma X, e LOC100132280, ainda não caracterizado, no cromossoma 8. Estudos in vitro evidenciaram a capacidade da ATXN3L para clivar cadeias de ubiquitina, sendo o seu domínio proteolítico mais eficiente do que o domínio da ATXN3 parental. O objetivo deste estudo foi explorar a origem e a evolução das retrocópias ATXN3L e LOC100132280 (aqui denominadas ATXN3L1 e ATXN3L2), assim como testar a relevância funcional de ambas através de abordagens evolutivas e funcionais. Deste modo, para estudar a divergência evolutiva dos páralogos do gene ATXN3: 1) analisaram-se as suas filogenias e estimou-se a data de origem dos eventos de retrotransposição; 2) avaliaram-se as pressões seletivas a que têm sido sujeitos os três parálogos, ao longo da evolução dos primatas; e 3) explorou-se a evolução das repetições CAG, localizadas em três contextos genómicos diferentes, provavelmente sujeitos a diferentes pressões seletivas. Finalmente, para o retrogene que conserva uma open reading frame (ORF) intacta, ATXN3L1, analisou-se, in silico, a conservação dos locais e domínios proteicos da putativa proteína. Ademais, para este retrogene, foi estudado o padrão de expressão de mRNA, através da realização de PCR de Transcriptase Reversa, em 16 tecidos humanos. Os resultados obtidos sugerem que dois eventos independentes de retrotransposição estiveram na origem dos retrogenes ATXN3L1 e ATXN3L2, tendo o primeiro ocorrido há cerca de 63 milhões de anos (Ma) e o segundo após a divisão Platirrínios-Catarrínios, há cerca de 35 Ma. Adicionalmente, outras retrocópias foram encontradas em primatas e outros mamíferos, correspondendo, no entanto, a eventos mais recentes e independentes de retrotransposição. A abordagem evolutiva mostrou a existência de algumas constrições selectivas associadas à evolução do gene ATXN3L1, à semelhança do que acontece com ATXN3. Por outro lado, ATXN3L2 adquiriu codões stop prematuros que, muito provavelmente, o tornaram num pseudogene processado. Os resultados da análise de expressão mostraram que o gene ATXN3L1 é transcrito, pelo menos, em testículo humano; no entanto, a optimização final da amplificação específica dos transcriptos ATXN3L1 permitirá confirmar se a expressão se estende a outros tecidos. Relativamente ao mecanismo de mutação inerente à repetição CAG, os dois parálogos mostraram diferentes padrões de evolução: a retrocópia ATXN3L1 é altamente interrompida e pouco polimórfica, enquanto a ATXN3L2 apresenta tratos puros de (CAG)n em algumas espécies e tratos hexanucleotídicos de CGGCAG no homem e no chimpanzé. A recente aquisição da repetição CGGCAG pode ter resultado de uma mutação inicial de CAG para CGG, seguida de instabilidade que proporcionou a expansão dos hexanucleótidos.Estudos futuros poderão ser realizados no sentido de confirmar o padrão de expressão do gene ATXN3L1 e de detetar proteína endógena in vivo. Adicionalmente, a caracterização da proteina ataxina-3 like 1 e dos seus interatores moleculares poderá povidenciar informação acerca da sua relevância no estado normal e patológico.

The effects of chemicals in isopods : a multi-organizational evaluation

The global aim of this thesis was to evaluate and assess the effects of a pesticide (dimethoate) and a metal (nickel), as model chemicals, within different organization levels, starting at the detoxification pathways (enzymatic biomarkers) and energy costs associated (energy content quantification, energy consumption and CEA) along with the physiological alterations at the individual and population level (mortality), leading to a metabolomic analysis (using liquid 1H-NMR) and finally a gene expression analysis (transcriptome and RT-qPCR analysis). To better understand potential variations in response to stressors, abiotic factors were also assessed in terrestrial isopods such as temperature, soil moisture and UV radiation. The evaluation performed using biochemical biomarkers and energy related parameters showed that increases in temperature might negatively affect the organisms by generating oxidative stress. It also showed that this species is acclimated to environments with low soil moisture, and that in high moisture scenarios there was a short gap between the optimal and adverse conditions that led to increased mortality. As for UV-R, doses nowadays present have shown to induce significant negative impact on these organisms. The long-term exposure to dimethoate showed that besides the neurotoxicity resulting from acetylcholinesterase inhibition, this stressor also caused oxidative stress. This effect was observed for both concentrations used (recommended field dose application and a below EC50 value) and that its combination with different temperatures (20ºC and 25ºC) showed different response patterns. It was also observed that dimethoate’s degradation rate in soils was higher in the presence of isopods. In a similar study performed with nickel, oxidative stress was also observed. But, in the case of this stressor exposure, organisms showed a strategy where the energetic costs necessary for detoxification (biomarkers) seemed to be compensated by positive alterations in the energy related parameters. In this work we presented for the first time a metabolomic profile of terrestrial isopods exposed to stressors (dimethoate and niquel), since until the moment only a previous study was performed on a metabolomic evaluation in nonexposed isopods. In the first part of the study we identify 24 new metabolites that had not been described previously. On the second part of the study a metabolomic profile variation of abstract non-exposed organism throughout the exposure was presented and finally the metabolomic profile of organisms exposed to dimethoate and nickel. The exposure to nickel suggested alteration in growth, moult, haemocyanin and glutathione synthesis, energy pathways and in osmoregulation. As for the exposure to dimethoate alterations in osmoregulation, energy pathways, moult and neurotransmission were also suggested. In this work it was also presented the first full body transcriptome of a terrestrial isopod from the species Porcellionides pruinosus, which will complement the scarce information available for this group of organisms. This transcriptome also served as base for a RNA-Seq and a RT-qPCR analysis. The results of the RNA-Seq analysis performed in organisms exposed to nickel showed that this stressor negatively impacted at the genetic and epigenetic levels, in the trafficking, storage and elimination of metals, generates oxidative stress, inducing neurotoxicity and also affecting reproduction. These results were confirmed through RT-qPCR. As for the impact of dimethoate on these organisms it was only accessed through RT-qPCR and showed oxidative stress, an impact in neurotransmission, in epigenetic markers, DNA repair and cell cycle impairment. This study allowed the design of an Adverse Outcome Pathway draft that can be used further on for legislative purposes.

Root ferric chelate reductase is regulated by iron and copper in straberry plants

In the present experiment, we studied the interaction between copper (Cu) and iron (Fe) in strawberry plants grown in nutrient solutions containing different concentrations of Fe. Plants grown in the absence of iron (Fe0) had the characteristic symptoms of Fe deficiency, with smaller chlorotic leaves, less biomass, acidification of the nutrient solution, and roots that were smaller and less ramified, while no symptoms of Fe deficiency were observed in plants grown with Fe. A greater amount of Cu was found in roots of chlorotic plants than in those grown with Fe, while plants grown with 20M of Fe (Fe20) in the nutrient solution had a greater amount of Fe compared with plants from the other treatments. Chlorotic plants (Fe0) and plants grown with the greatest level of Fe (Fe20) had a greater root ferric chelate reductase (FC-R; EC 1.16.1.17) activity compared with the other treatments with 5 or 10M Fe in the nutrient solution. The same pattern was obtained for relative FC-R mRNA concentration and for the sum of Fe and Cu contents in shoots (leaves plus crowns). The DNA obtained from amplification of the FC-R mRNA was cloned and several of the inserts analysed by single strand confirmation polymorphism (SSCP). Although there were different SSCP patterns in the Fe20 treatment, all the inserts that were sequenced were very similar, excluding the hypothesis of more than one FC-R mRNA species being present. The results suggest that Cu as well as Fe is involved in FC-R expression and activity, although the mechanism involved in this regulation is unknown so far. Both small contents of Fe and Cu in plants led to an over-expression of the FC-R gene and enhanced FC-R activity in strawberry roots.

Evolution, gene regulation and functional analysis of BMP2 in fish

Bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) are multifunctional growth factors belonging to the transforming growth factor β (TGFβ) superfamily with a central role in bone formation and mineralization. BMP2, a founding member of this family, has demonstrated remarkable osteogenic properties and is clinically used to promote bone repair and fracture healing. Lack of basic data on factors regulating BMP2 expression and activity have hampered a better understanding of its role in bone formation and bone-related diseases. The objective of this work was to collect new functional data and determine spatiotemporal expression patterns in a fish system aiming towards a better understanding of BMP2 function and regulation. Transcriptional and post-transcriptional regulation of gilthead seabream BMP2 gene was inferred from luciferase reporter systems. Several bone- and cartilage-related transcription factors (e.g. RUNX3, MEF2c, SOX9 and ETS1) were found to regulate BMP2 transcription, while microRNA 20a was shown to affect stability of the BMP2 transcript and thus the mineralogenic capacity of fish bone-derived host cells. The regulation of BMP2 activity through an interaction with the matrix Gla protein (MGP) was investigated in vitro using BMP responsive elements (BRE) coupled to luciferase reporter gene. Although we demonstrated the functionality of the experimental system in a fish cell line and the activation of BMP signaling pathway by seabream BMP2, no conclusive evidence could be collected on a possible interaction beween MGP and BMP2. The evolutionary relationship among the members of BMP2/4/16 subfamily was inferred from taxonomic and phylogenetic analyses. BMP16 diverged prior to BMP2 and BMP4 and should be the result of an ancient genome duplication that occurred early in vertebrate evolution. Structural and functional data suggested that all three proteins are effectors of the BMP signaling pathway, but expression data revealed different spatiotemporal patterns in teleost fish suggesting distinct mechanisms of regulation. In this work, through the collection of novel data, we provide additional insight into the regulation, the structure and the phylogenetic relationship of BMP2 and its closely related family members.

Are the Birch Trees in Southern England a Source of Betula Pollen for North London?

Birch pollen is highly allergenic. Knowledge of daily variations, atmospheric transport and source areas of birch pollen is important for exposure studies and for warnings to the public, especially for large cities such as London. Our results show that broad-leaved forests with high birch tree densities are located to the south and west of London. Bi-hourly Betula pollen concentrations for all the days included in the study, and for all available days with high birch pollen counts (daily average birch pollen counts >80 grains/m3), show that, on average, there is a peak between 1400 hours and 1600 hours. Back-trajectory analysis showed that, on days with high birch pollen counts (n=60), 80% of air masses arriving at the time of peak diurnal birch pollen count approached North London from the south in a 180 degree arc from due east to due west. Detailed investigations of three Betula pollen episodes, with distinctly different diurnal patterns compared to the mean daily cycle, were used to illustrate how night-time maxima (2200–0400 hours) in Betula pollen counts could be the result of transport from distant sources or long transport times caused by slow moving air masses. We conclude that the Betula pollen recorded in North London could originate from sources found to the west and south of the city and not just trees within London itself. Possible sources outside the city include Continental Europe and the Betula trees within the broad-leaved forests of Southern England.

Categorising Asynchronous Discussion Threads: Improving the Quality of Student Learning

My paper will focus on the generative potential of categorising asynchronous discussion threads as one strategy for improving the quality of students’ learning in a blended learning module. The approach to categorisation is based on social network analysis using intuitively simple descriptors of message posting patterns e.g. passive facilitator, dominant facilitator, unresponsive star and formulaic discussion. The intention is to produce descriptively vivid illustrative examples of the categories and to begin to suggest affordances of the different participation patterns. Looking forward to the beginning of the next module, it is anticipated that discussion during the module of approaches to participating in asynchronous discussion will contribute to effective engagement patterns and deeper learning.

Determination of electricity consumers’ load profiles via weighted evidence accumulation clustering using subsampling

With the electricity market liberalization, the distribution and retail companies are looking for better market strategies based on adequate information upon the consumption patterns of its electricity consumers. A fair insight on the consumers’ behavior will permit the definition of specific contract aspects based on the different consumption patterns. In order to form the different consumers’ classes, and find a set of representative consumption patterns we use electricity consumption data from a utility client’s database and two approaches: Two-step clustering algorithm and the WEACS approach based on evidence accumulation (EAC) for combining partitions in a clustering ensemble. While EAC uses a voting mechanism to produce a co-association matrix based on the pairwise associations obtained from N partitions and where each partition has equal weight in the combination process, the WEACS approach uses subsampling and weights differently the partitions. As a complementary step to the WEACS approach, we combine the partitions obtained in the WEACS approach with the ALL clustering ensemble construction method and we use the Ward Link algorithm to obtain the final data partition. The characterization of the obtained consumers’ clusters was performed using the C5.0 classification algorithm. Experiment results showed that the WEACS approach leads to better results than many other clustering approaches.

Ethical consumption (in)decisons

Consumers’ indecisions about the ethical value of their choices are amongst the highest concerns regarding ethical products’ purchasing. This is especially true for Fair Trade certified products where the ethical attribute information provided by the packaging is often unacknowledged by consumers. While well-informed consumers are likely to generate positive consumer reactions to ethical products and increase its ethical consumption, less knowledgeable buyers show different purchasing patterns. In such circumstances, decisions are often driven by socio-cultural beliefs about the low functional performance of ethical or sustainable attributes. For instance, products more congruent with sustainability (e.g., produce) are considered to be simpler but less tasty than less sustainable products. Less sustainable products instead, are considered to be more sophisticated and to provide consumers with more hedonic pleasures (e.g., chocolate mousse). The extent that ethicality is linked with experiences that provide consumers with more pain than pleasure is also manifested in pro-social social behaviors. More specifically through conspicuous self-sacrificial consumption experiences like running for charity in marathons with wide public exposure. The willingness of consumers to engage in such costly initiatives is moderated by gender differences and further, mediated by the chronic productivity orientation of some individuals to use time in a productive manner. Using experimental design studies, I show that consumers (1) use a set of affective and cognitive associations with on-package elements to interpret ethical attributes, (2) implicitly associate ethicality with simplicity, and that (3) men versus women show different preferences in their forms of contribution to pro-social causes.

Épidémiologie du syndrome reproducteur et respiratoire porcin dans deux régions de densités porcines différentes au Québec

Le virus du syndrome reproducteur et respiratoire porcin (SRRP) est actuellement l’une des principales menaces pour la santé des troupeaux porcins. Les multiples voies de transmission complexifient l’épidémiologie de l’infection et en font une maladie particulièrement difficile à contrôler. L’objectif général de ce projet de recherche était de déterminer les facteurs associés au statut SRRP des sites de production afin de mieux comprendre l’épidémiologie de cette maladie au sein de deux régions du Québec ayant des densités porcines différentes. Les stratégies d’introduction des cochettes de remplacement ont d’abord été examinées. Des lacunes importantes ont été identifiées représentant un risque potentiel pour l’introduction du virus ou pour la recirculation d’une souche endémique au sein d’un troupeau reproducteur. Ainsi, appliquée à titre de stratégie de contrôle, l’acclimatation s’est révélée particulièrement problématique. Les principes de base étaient peu respectés, pouvant donc avoir un impact négatif considérable sur la circulation virale au sein du troupeau et potentiellement sur le voisinage immédiat. La fréquence de plusieurs mesures de biosécurité externe a ensuite été évaluée, permettant d’identifier certains problèmes dont ceux touchant principalement les mesures d’hygiène relatives au protocole d’entrée. Des différences de fréquence entre les régions et les types de production ont également été notées, ce qui peut orienter les interventions de rehaussement. Une classification multivariée a permis de grouper les sites en différents patrons de biosécurité pour constituer par le fait même un index de biosécurité. Cette étape a permis d’évaluer l’association entre certaines caractéristiques de l’élevage et le niveau de biosécurité indiqué par l’index. La distribution géographique des patrons au sein des deux régions, couplée à la détection d’agrégats spatiaux de sites ayant un patron similaire, a également permis de cibler davantage les interventions en fonction de la localisation des sites. Suite à l’investigation du statut SRRP des sites, une prévalence apparente très élevée a été obtenue pour les deux régions, complexifiant le contrôle de la maladie. L’étude de facteurs de risque dans la région de densité modérée a mis en évidence quatre facteurs associés au statut SRRP positif des sites, soit un inventaire important, la proximité du site porcin immédiat, l’absence de douche ainsi que le libre accès au site par l’équarrisseur. Une action préventive intégrant des mesures de biosécurité spécifiques peut donc être entreprise directement à la ferme au regard des deux derniers facteurs. Le fait d’utiliser un index de biosécurité plutôt que des mesures de biosécurité spécifiques a également été évalué. Les résultats ne supportent pas l’index global dans l’évaluation de l’association entre la biosécurité et le statut SRRP des sites de production. Finalement, la corrélation entre les distances génétique, euclidienne et temporelle des souches de SRRP, considérant également l’appartenance au même ou à des propriétaires différents, a été évaluée au sein de la région de haute densité. Une corrélation positive entre la distance génétique et euclidienne observée jusqu’à 5 km a souligné l’importance de la propagation régionale impliquant les aérosols, les insectes, d’autres espèces animales ou les objets inanimés. De plus, les souches génétiquement similaires appartenaient davantage à des sites ayant le même propriétaire, ce qui sous-tend des mécanismes de transmission impliquant une source commune d’animaux, d’employés, d’équipement, voire de véhicules.

Souplesse et méfiance de la coopération policière transnationale

Même si la coopération policière transnationale est l’objet ces dernières années d’un engouement souvent attribué à des vertus d’efficacité, il reste que relativement peu d’informations sont disponibles sur le processus en lui-même. L’objectif général de la thèse était de fournir une analyse englobant à la fois les préoccupations des autorités politiques et celles des acteurs judiciaires et policiers. Ces acteurs occupent tous des rôles nécessaires dans le système de la coopération policière transnationale, mais outre cette constatation, les études à leur sujet ne se recoupent pas véritablement. C’est donc dire que, d’une part, les études sur les acteurs politiques se concentrent sur les décisions prises par ceux-ci, sur l’élaboration de concepts et sur la signature de conventions. D’autre part, les études sur les acteurs policiers et judiciaires mettent l’accent sur le déroulement quotidien des activités policières transnationales et sur ce qui s’ensuit, c’est-à-dire les procédures judiciaires. À l’aide de concepts tels que la discrétion et la souplesse, la familiarité, la confiance, la méfiance, le scepticisme et l’évitement, nous tentons de rallier les récents concepts de reconnaissance mutuelle et de confiance mutuelle avec ce qui se passe effectivement dans le monde opérationnel. La thèse, qui s’intéresse principalement à la coopération policière transnationale en matière de trafic de drogues, s’appuie sur deux types de données. Tout d’abord, des entrevues qualitatives semi-dirigées ont été menées auprès de 21 policiers et procureurs. Ensuite, une analyse documentaire a été effectuée sur des documents canadiens, soit les sept jurisprudences sur l’extranéité et un guide rédigé par un procureur à l’intention des enquêteurs œuvrant dans les enquêtes. Nous allons présenter rapidement les résultats les plus importants de la thèse. Dans le premier chapitre, il a été question de deux niveaux de structures de pouvoir, qui n’évoluent pas en vases clos, mais qui s’influencent mutuellement. C’est dire que le levier d’influence des acteurs étatiques sur les acteurs du policing transnational peut être relativement puissant, mais que des parades peuvent toujours être utilisées par les policiers dans des cas spécifiques. Nadelmann (1993) avait raison lorsqu’il a soutenu qu’une norme adoptée au niveau transnational n’est pas nécessairement utile à la réalisation des objectifs communs des États, c’est-à-dire l’immobilisation des criminels. La norme est le produit d’une négociation politique et d’un jeu de pouvoir. Au final, elle n’influe pas énormément sur les décisions prises par les policiers dans les enquêtes à composantes transnationales. Au mieux, elle est un guide de règles à ne pas violer ouvertement et impunément. De plus, alors que les pays et les organisations utilisent un système de récompense, d’incitatifs ou de menace de sanctions pour favoriser la coopération policière transnationale en vu d’une participation à une enquête à composantes transnationales, les individus qui travaillent dans les enquêtes à composantes transnationales utilisent la familiarité et valorisent la confiance comme moyen pour établir et maintenir des liens. Ces individus ne peuvent pas s’obliger entre eux, alors qu’il existe la possibilité d’imposer des sanctions réelles entre acteurs étatiques. Il s’agit donc de deux niveaux d’analyse, dans lesquelles la configuration des relations est différente. Dans le deuxième chapitre d’analyse, nous avons examiné les jurisprudences canadiennes et le guide d’un procureur à l’intention des policiers, ce qui nous a amené à constater la discrétion laissée par les agents judiciaires aux policiers travaillant au sein d’enquêtes à composantes transnationales. En fait, nous avons trouvé que les agents judiciaires sont conscients des difficultés des enquêtes à composantes transnationales et qu’ils sont plus flexibles dans ces cas que dans les enquêtes nationales. Le troisième chapitre d’analyse a montré que de nombreux moyens sont à la disposition des agents de l’enquête, et qu’une certaine logique sous-tendait les choix des policiers. Plus particulièrement, c’est la gestion des incertitudes, la nature de l’information et son utilisation envisagée qui importe pour les agents de l’enquête à composantes transnationale. Finalement, le dernier chapitre d’analyse illustre les différents types de relations entretenues entre agents de l’enquête. Nous avons trouvé que le scepticisme est prépondérant mais que la coopération demeure le plus souvent possible, lorsque les acteurs ont des intérêts en commun. Une certaine familiarité entre les acteurs est nécessaire, mais la confiance n’est pas toujours essentielle à la mise en œuvre des activités policières transnationales. En fait, cela dépend du niveau d’échanges nécessaires et du contexte. Gambetta (1988) avait d’ailleurs montré qu’une structure sociale relativement stable puisse se maintenir dans un contexte généralisé de méfiance.

Étude de la virulence et de la résistance aux antibiotiques des Staphylococcus aureus résistants à la méthicilline chez le porc à l'abattoir au Québec

Depuis quelques années et dans plusieurs pays, un nouveau type de Staphylococcus aureus résistant à la méthicilline (SARM), le séquence type (ST) 398, a été fréquemment retrouvé chez les porcs et chez les fermiers en contact avec ces porcs. Au Canada, très peu d’informations sont disponibles concernant le SARM d’origine porcine. Une première étude dans notre laboratoire a permis de récolter 107 isolats de SARM provenant de deux abattoirs porcins du Québec. Le présent travail vise à caractériser les gènes de virulence et de résistance aux antibiotiques de ces SARM, d’étudier leur formation de biofilm en relation avec la spécificité du groupe agr et de vérifier la localisation plasmidique et la transférabilité de ces gènes à des souches de SARM d’origine humaine. Plusieurs souches ont démontré différents patrons phénotypiques de résistance aux antibiotiques. Vingt-quatre souches représentatives de ces isolats ont été soumises à une caractérisation plus approfondie par une étude génotypique en utilisant une biopuce à ADN et un grand nombre de gènes de virulence a été détecté codant pour des entérotoxines staphylococcales, des leucocidines, des hémolysines, des auréolysines, des facteurs d’immunoévasion, des superantigènes, des facteurs d’adhésion et des facteurs impliqués dans la formation de biofilm. Des gènes de résistance envers les aminoglycosides, les macrolides, les lincosamides, les tétracyclines et les biocides ont été également détectés par biopuce et leur localisation plasmidique a par la suite été déterminée. La transférabilité de ces gènes de souches porcines à des souches de SARM d’origine humaine a été démontrée par conjugaison bactérienne; ainsi le transfert horizontal de certains gènes de résistance aux antibiotiques et de virulence a été observé. Ces travaux de recherche apportent une meilleure connaissance de la résistance aux antibiotiques et de la virulence des SARM d’origine porcine et de leur potentiel de contribution à l’émergence de certaines résistances et facteurs de virulence chez le SARM d’origine humaine.