An investigation into complex inorganic materials with Mössbauer spectroscopy

Mössbauer Spektroskopie ist ein unverzichtbares Instrument für die Bestimmung von Oxidationszuständen und für die Analyse von lokalen Ordnungsphänomenen von Mössbauer aktiven Atomen. Weil es sich um eine lokale Methode handelt können sowohl kristalline als auch amorphe Materialien untersucht werden. Die Kombination von lokaler Prüfung mit Mössbauer Spektroskopie und globaler Untersuchung z.B. mit Röntgendiffraktometrie ermöglicht die Studie von Ordnungseffekten von statistisch besetzten Positionen in einer geordneten Matrix. Das wurde hier eingesetzt um die lokale Umgebung in zwei Serien von Heuslerverbindungen, Co2-xFe1+xSi and Co2Mn1-xFexAl zu untersuchen. Für die Co2Mn1-xFexAl Serie wurde eine L21 geordnete Phase in einer insgesamt B2 geordneten Probe detektiert. Ein Wechsel von der AlCu2Mn zu der CuHg2Ti Struktur wurde für die Co2-xFe1+xSi Proben gefunden. Die Transformation von einem Glas zu einem keramischen Material wurde mit 119Sn Mössbauer Spektroskopie untersucht. Die höhere Ordnung in der Keramik wurde von einer kleiner werdenden Mössbauerlinienbreite begleitet. Demzufolge geben die Modifikationen der Sn Umgebungen klar die Transformation des gesamten Materials wieder. Ist die lokale Umgebung von unregelmäßig auftretenden Atomen in einer amorphen Matrix von Interesse, sind lokal prüfende Methoden die zuverlässigsten Methoden die zur Verfügung stehen. In dieser Arbeit wurde 119Sn Mössbauer Spektroskopie eingesetzt um die Oxidationszustände, die lokalen Umgebungen und relativen Intensitäten von Zinn Atomen in einer Silikatmatrix zu bestimmen. Modifikationen dieser Parameter als Funktion von Prozess bestimmenden Parametern wie der Sauerstoffpartialdruck, die Temperatur, die Behandlungsdauer und der Abkühlprozess genauso wie der SnO2 Gehalt sind von Interesse, weil durch Reduktions- und Diffusionsprozesse Änderungen des Koordinations- und des Oxidationszustands der Zinnatome auftreten. Da diese Änderungen in der Glasmatrix verursachen, die das fertige Produkt im industriellen Fertigungsprozess ruinieren können sind diese feinen Veränderungen sehr wichtig. Wenigstens zwei Mössbauerlinien korrespondierend mit zwei verschiedenen Umgebungen für Sn2+ und Sn4+ sind für eine Analyse mit ausreichender Qualität notwendig. Durch Vergleich von den bestimmten Hyperfein Parametern mit den Parametern von Modelsubstanzen werden lokale Umgebungen der Zinnatome entworfen. Für Sn2+ werden zwei auf einer trigonalen Pyramide basierende Umgebungen mit variierender Anzahl von bindenden und nicht-bindenden Sauerstoffatomen formuliert. Für Sn4+ wurde eine tetraedrische und eine oktaedrische Umgebung postuliert. Die relativen Intensitäten der vier Mössbauerlinien wurden um ein Diffusions- und Reaktionsmodell zu entwickeln und um einen Satz von Diffusions- und Transferkoeffizienten zu bestimmen eingesetzt. Die bestimmten Diffusionskoeffizienten stimmen mit den Literaturdaten überein. Der Massentransferkoeffizient ist kleiner als der bestimmte Wert, aber immer noch in der gleichen Größenordnung. Im Gegensatz zu den Erwartungen ist der präsentierte Diffusionskoeffizient für Sn4+ bestimmt als der von Sn2+. Das wiederum kann durch Berücksichtigung von Elektronhoppingprozessen erklärt werden.

Hard x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy of bulk and thin films of Heusler compounds

X-ray photoemission spectroscopy (XPS) is one of the most universal and powerful tools for investigation of chemical states and electronic structures of materials. The application of hard x-rays increases the inelastic mean free path of the emitted electrons within the solid and thus makes hard x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (HAXPES) a bulk sensitive probe for solid state research and especially a very effective nondestructive technique to study buried layers.rnThis thesis focuses on the investigation of multilayer structures, used in magnetic tunnel junctions (MTJs), by a number of techniques applying HAXPES. MTJs are the most important components of novel nanoscale devices employed in spintronics. rnThe investigation and deep understanding of the mechanisms responsible for the high performance of such devices and properties of employed magnetic materials that are, in turn, defined by their electronic structure becomes feasible applying HAXPES. Thus the process of B diffusion in CoFeB-based MTJs was investigated with respect to the annealing temperature and its influence on the changes in the electronic structure of CoFeB electrodes that clarify the behaviour and huge TMR ratio values obtained in such devices. These results are presented in chapter 6. The results of investigation of the changes in the valence states of buried off-stoichiometric Co2MnSi electrodes were investigated with respect to the Mn content α and its influence on the observed TMR ratio are described in chapter 7.rnrnMagnetoelectronic properties such as exchange splitting in ferromagnetic materials as well as the macroscopic magnetic ordering can be studied by magnetic circular dichroism in photoemission (MCDAD). It is characterized by the appearance of an asymmetry in the photoemission spectra taken either from the magnetized sample with the reversal of the photon helicity or by reversal of magnetization direction of the sample when the photon helicity direction is fixed. Though recently it has been widely applied for the characterization of surfaces using low energy photons, the bulk properties have stayed inaccessible. Therefore in this work this method was integrated to HAXPES to provide an access to exploration of magnetic phenomena in the buried layers of the complex multilayer structures. Chapter 8 contains the results of the MCDAD measurements employing hard x-rays for exploration of magnetic properties of the common CoFe-based band-ferromagnets as well as half-metallic ferromagnet Co2FeAl-based MTJs.rnrnInasmuch as the magnetoresistive characteristics in spintronic devices are fully defined by the electron spins of ferromagnetic materials their direct measurements always attracted much attention but up to date have been limited by the surface sensitivity of the developed techniques. Chapter 9 presents the results on the successfully performed spin-resolved HAXPES experiment using a spin polarimeter of the SPLEED-type on a buried Co2FeAl0.5Si0.5 magnetic layer. The measurements prove that a spin polarization of about 50 % is retained during the transmission of the photoelectrons emitted from the Fe 2p3/2 state through a 3-nm-thick oxide capping layer.rn

Influence of defects and disorder on anomalous Hall effect and spin Seebeck effect on permalloy and Heusler compounds

In dieser Arbeit wurden dünne Schichten von Heusler-Verbindungen hergestellt und auf ihre Transporteigenschaften hin untersucht.rnDer Anomale Hall-Effekt (AHE) ist dabei von besonderem Interesse. Er ist ein seit langer Zeit bekannter, jedoch noch nicht vollständig verstandener Transport-Effekt. Die meisten Veröffentlichungen theoretischer Arbeiten konzentrieren sich auf den Einfluss eines bestimmten Beitrags zum AHE. Tatsächlich gemessene experimentelle Daten können jedoch oft nicht in Einklang mit idealisierten Annahmen gebracht werden. rnDie vorliegende Arbeit diskutiert die Ergebnisse, welche aus Messungen von Materialien mit niedrigem Restwiderstand erhalten wurden. rnrnAls prototypische Materialien wurden hier hyphenation Heusler-Verbindungen untersucht. Als Material mit einer komplexen Topologie der Fermi-Fläche zeichnet sich dort der Einfluss von Defekten und der Unordnung der Kristallstruktur deutlich ab.rnrnDurch Verwendung von Filmen mit unterschiedlichem Grad der Unordnung können verschiedene Streumechanismen unterschieden werden. Für Co$_{2}$FeSi$_{0.6}$Al$_{0.4}$ and Co$_{2}$FeGa$_{0.5}$Ge$_{0.5}$ zeigt sich ein positiver AHE bei einer Unordnung vom Typ B2 und bei einer induzierten temperaturabh"angigen Streuung, wo hingegen eine Typ DO$_{3}$-Unordnung zusammen mit anderen möglichen intrinsischen Beiträgen einen negativen Effekt hervorruft.rnrnDarüber hinaus wurden die magneto-optische Kerr-Effekte (MOKE) dieser Verbindungen untersucht. Hierfür wurden Beiträge erster Ordnung als Funktion der intrinsischen und extrinsischen Parameter qualitativ analysiert. Auf den Einfluss der kristallinen Ordnung auf Beiträge zweiter Ordnung des MOKE-Signals wird ebenfalls eingegangen.rnrnDes Weiteren wurden dünne Schichten der Heusler-Verbindung Co$_{2}$MnAl auf MgO- und Si-Subs-traten (beide (100)) mit Hochfrequenz-Mag-netron-Sputtern erzeugt. Die zusammensetzung sowie die magnetischen und Transport-Eigenschaften wurden hinsichtlich unterschiedlicher Abscheidebedingungen systematisch untersucht.rnrnInsbesondere zeigt der AHE-Widerstand ein außerordentliches temperaturunabhängiges Verhalten in einem Bereich moderater Magnetfeldstärken von 0 bis 0.6,T. Hierf"ur wurde der nicht-diagonale Transport bei Temperaturen bis zu 300,$^{circ}$C analysiert. Die Daten zeigen die Eignung des Materials für Hall-Sensoren auch oberhalb der Raumtemperatur.rnrnJüngst wurde der Spin Seebeck-Effekt (SSE) entdeckt. Der Effekt aus dem Bereich der Spin-Kaloritronik erzeugt eine Spin-Spannung'' aufgrund eines Temperaturgradienten in magnetischen Materialien. Hier werden vorläufige Messungen des SSE in Ni$_{80}$Fe$_{20}$ und in Heusler-Verbindungen präsentiert.rn

New analytical LC-mass spectrometry methodologies for the quali-quantitative determination of natural substances and drugs in complex matrices

This thesis reports an integrated analytical and physicochemical approach for the study of natural substances and new drugs based on mass spectrometry techniques combined with liquid chromatography. In particular, Chapter 1 concerns the study of Berberine a natural substance with pharmacological activity for the treatment of hepatobiliary and intestinal diseases. The first part focused on the relationships between physicochemical properties, pharmacokinetics and metabolism of Berberine and its metabolites. For this purpose a sensitive HPLC-ES-MS/MS method have been developed, validated and used to determine these compounds during their physicochemical properties studies and plasma levels of berberine and its metabolites including berberrubine(M1), demethylenberberine(M3), and jatrorrhizine(M4) in humans. Data show that M1, could have an efficient intestinal absorption by passive diffusion due to a keto-enol tautomerism confirmed by NMR studies and its higher plasma concentration. In the second part of Chapter 1, a comparison between M1 and BBR in vivo biodistribution in rat has been studied. In Chapter 2 a new HPLC-ES-MS/MS method for the simultaneous determination and quantification of glucosinolates, as glucoraphanin, glucoerucin and sinigrin, and isothiocyanates, as sulforaphane and erucin, has developed and validated. This method has been used for the analysis of functional foods enriched with vegetable extracts. Chapter 3 focused on a physicochemical study of the interaction between the bile acid sequestrants used in the treatment of hypercholesterolemia including colesevelam and cholestyramine with obeticolic acid (OCA), potent agonist of nuclear receptor farnesoid X (FXR). In particular, a new experimental model for the determination of equilibrium binding isotherm was developed. Chapter 4 focused on methodological aspects of new hard ionization coupled with liquid chromatography (Direct-EI-UHPLC-MS) not yet commercially available and potentially useful for qualitative analysis and for “transparent” molecules to soft ionization techniques. This method was applied to the analysis of several steroid derivatives.

EPR spectroscopy as a tool for the elucidation of non-covalent structuring principles in complex soft matter

This thesis aims at connecting structural and functional changes of complex soft matter systems due to external stimuli with non-covalent molecular interaction profiles. It addresses the problem of elucidating non-covalent forces as structuring principle of mainly polymer-based systems in solution. The structuring principles of a wide variety of complex soft matter types are analyzed. In many cases this is done by exploring conformational changes upon the exertion of external stimuli. The central question throughout this thesis is how a certain non-covalent interaction profile leads to solution condition-dependent structuring of a polymeric system.rnTo answer this question, electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy is chosen as the main experimental method for the investigation of the structure principles of polymers. With EPR one detects only the local surroundings or environments of molecules that carry an unpaired electron. Non-covalent forces are normally effective on length scales of a few nanometers and below. Thus, EPR is excellently suited for their investigations. It allows for detection of interactions on length scales ranging from approx. 0.1 nm up to 10 nm. However, restriction to only one experimental technique likely leads to only incomplete pictures of complex systems. Therefore, the presented studies are frequently augmented with further experimental and computational methods in order to yield more comprehensive descriptions of the systems chosen for investigation.rnElectrostatic correlation effects in non-covalent interaction profiles as structuring principles in colloid-like ionic clusters and DNA condensation are investigated first. Building on this it is shown how electrostatic structuring principles can be combined with hydrophobic ones, at the example of host-guest interactions in so-called dendronized polymers (denpols).rnSubsequently, the focus is shifted from electrostatics in dendronized polymers to thermoresponsive alkylene oxide-based materials, whose structuring principles are based on hydrogen bonds and counteracting hydrophobic interactions. The collapse mechanism in dependence of hydrophilic-hydrophobic balance and topology of these polymers is elucidated. Complementarily the temperature-dependent phase behavior of elastin-like polypeptides (ELPs) is investigated. ELPs are the first (and so far only) class of compounds that is shown to feature a first-order inverse phase transition on nanoscopic length scales.rnFinally, this thesis addresses complex biological systems, namely intrinsically disordered proteins (IDPs). It is shown that the conformational space of the IDPs Osteopontin (OPN), a cytokine involved in metastasis of several kinds of cancer, and BASP1 (brain acid soluble protein one), a protein associated with neurite outgrowth, is governed by a subtle interplay between electrostatic forces, hydrophobic interaction, system entropy and hydrogen bonds. Such, IDPs can even sample cooperatively folded structures, which have so far only been associated with globular proteins.

Heusler compounds for thermoelectric applications

The demands for energy is leading to social and political conflicts in the world. For example, the limited resources of fossil fuels causing a dependence on the oil conveying countries in the world, leading to political discords. One way to save energy is to increase the efficiency of a process. In the field of thermoelectricity waste heat is used to produce electricity, this leads to an improvement of the efficiency. Heusler compounds with C1b structure with the general formula XY Z (X, Y = transition metal, Z = main group element) are in focus of the present thermoelectric research. Their mechanical and thermal stability is exceptional in comparison to the commonly used thermoelectric materials. The possibility to substitute small amounts of elements from the parent compound without destructing the lattice structure allows tuning the electronic properties. This tunability also allows to avoid the use of toxic and expensive elements. The reported thermoelectric Heusler compounds exhibit high electrical conductivity and moderate values of the Seebeck coefficients, which lead to a high powerfactor. The disadvantage of Heusler compounds is their high thermal conductivity. Introducing mass disorder on the X-site lattice is one effective way to produce additional phonon scattering and with it to decrease the thermal conductivity. Another approach is to implement a nano or micro structure in the thermoelectric material. This can be achieved by phase separation, composite materials, pulverization with additional spark plasma sintering or by a complex lattice structure. In the first part of this work, the influence of element substitutions on the Zr0.5Hf0.5NiSn system was investigated, to obtain the knowledge on how to optimize the electronic properties of the Heusler compounds with C1b structure. In line with this, the change of the electronic structure was investigated and a possible mechanism is predicted. In the second part of this work, the phenomenon of phase separation was investigated. First, by applying a phase separation in the well-known system Co2MnSn and subsequently by systematic investiga- tions on the TixZryHfzNiSn. In the third part, the results from the previous parts before were used to produce and explain the best reported Heusler compound with C1b structure exhibiting a Figure of Merit of ZT= 1.2 at 830 K.

Efficacy of fluoride compounds and stannous chloride as erosion inhibitors in dentine

The aim of this study was to evaluate the anti-erosive effects of different fluoride compounds and one tin compound in the context of the complex pathohistology of dentine erosion, with particular emphasis on the role of the organic portion. Samples were subjected to two experiments including erosive acid attacks (0.05 molar citric acid, pH 2.3; 6 x 2 min/day) and applications (6 x 2 min/day) of the following test solutions: SnCl(2) (815 ppm Sn), NaF (250 ppm F), SnF(2) (250 ppm F, 809 ppm Sn), amine fluoride (AmF, 250 ppm F), AmF/NaF (250 ppm F), and AmF/SnF(2) (250 ppm F, 409 ppm Sn). The demineralised organic fraction was enzymatically removed either at the end of the experiment (experiment 1) or continuously throughout the experiment (experiment 2). Tissue loss was determined profilometrically after 10 experimental days. In experiment 1, the highest erosive tissue loss was found in the control group (erosion only); the AmF- and NaF-containing solutions reduced tissue loss by about 60%, reductions for SnCl(2), AmF/SnF(2), and SnF(2) were 52, 74 and 89%, respectively. In experiment 2, loss values generally were significantly higher, and the differences between the test solutions were much more distinct. Reduction of tissue loss was between 12 and 34% for the AmF- and NaF-containing preparations, and 11, 67 and 78% for SnCl(2), AmF/SnF(2), and SnF(2), respectively. Stannous fluoride-containing solutions revealed promising anti-erosive effects in dentine. The strikingly different outcomes in the two experiments suggest reconsidering current methodologies for investigating anti-erosive strategies in dentine.

Transfection of drug-specific T-cell receptors into hybridoma cells: tools to monitor drug interaction with T-cell receptors and evaluate cross-reactivity to related compounds

In the context of drug hypersensitivity, our group has recently proposed a new model based on the structural features of drugs (pharmacological interaction with immune receptors; p-i concept) to explain their recognition by T cells. According to this concept, even chemically inert drugs can stimulate T cells because certain drugs interact in a direct way with T-cell receptors (TCR) and possibly major histocompatibility complex molecules without the need for metabolism and covalent binding to a carrier. In this study, we investigated whether mouse T-cell hybridomas transfected with drug-specific human TCR can be used as an alternative to drug-specific T-cell clones (TCC). Indeed, they behaved like TCC and, in accordance with the p-i concept, the TCR recognize their specific drugs in a direct, processing-independent, and dose-dependent way. The presence of antigen-presenting cells was a prerequisite for interleukin-2 production by the TCR-transfected cells. The analysis of cross-reactivity confirmed the fine specificity of the TCR and also showed that TCR transfectants might provide a tool to evaluate the potential of new drugs to cause hypersensitivity due to cross-reactivity. Recombining the alpha- and beta-chains of sulfanilamide- and quinolone-specific TCR abrogated drug reactivity, suggesting that both original alpha- and beta-chains were involved in drug binding. The TCR-transfected hybridoma system showed that the recognition of two important classes of drugs (sulfanilamides and quinolones) by TCR occurred according to the p-i concept and provides an interesting tool to study drug-TCR interactions and their biological consequences and to evaluate the cross-reactivity potential of new drugs of the same class.

Characterization of water-soluble organic compounds in ambient aerosol using ultrahigh-resolution elctrospray ionization fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry.

Atmospheric aerosol water-soluble organic compounds (WSOC) exist in a complex mixture of thousands of organic compounds which may have a significant influence on the climate-relevant properties of the atmospheric aerosol. To understand the potential influences, the ambient aerosol was collected at a nonurban mountainous site near Steamboat Springs, CO. The WSOC fraction was analyzed using positive and negative electrospray ionization Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry. Approximately 2400 and 4000 molecular formulas were identified from the detected positive and negative ions, respectively. The formulas contained carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), and sulfur (S) atoms over the mass range of 100-800 Da in both ionization modes. The number range of double bond equivalents (DBE), the mean O:C, H:C, and oxidation state of carbon for the positive ions were 0 – 18, 0.25 ± 0.15, 1.39 ± 0.29, and -0.89 ± 0.23, respectively. Comparatively, the negative ion values were 0 – 14, 0.53 ± 0.20, 1.48 ± 0.30, and -0.41 ± 0.45, respectively. Overall, the positive ion molecular formulas were less oxygenated than negative ions as seen with the lower O:C and OSc values. Molecular formulas of the positive ions classified as aliphatic, olefinic, and aromatic compound classes based on the aromaticity index values. Aliphatic compounds were the CHNO and CHO formulas that had mean DBE values of about 5 and 3, respectively. However, a majority of the CHOS, CHNOS, and CHS formulas were defined as olefinic compounds and had mean DBE values of about 12, 13, and 10, respectively. Overall, more than half of the assigned molecular formulas contained sulfur and were olefinic to aromatic compounds with a DBE range of 7-18. Source of the unsaturated sulfur containing compounds is currently unknown. Several nitrogen containing compounds were in common with the field and laboratory studies of the biomass burning aerosol and aged secondary organic aerosol products of the limonene ozonolysis.

Flame Synthesis of Complex Fluoride-Based Nanoparticles as Upconversion Phosphors

Recent improvements in precursor chemistry, reactor geometry and run conditions extend the manufacturing capability of traditional flame aerosol synthesis of oxide nanoparticles to metals, alloys and inorganic complex salts. As an example of a demanding composition, we demonstrate here the one-step flame synthesis of nanoparticles of a 4-element non-oxide phosphor for upconversion applications. The phosphors are characterized in terms of emission capability, phase purity and thermal phase evolution. The preparation of flame-made beta-NaYF4 with dopants of Yb, Tm or Yb, Er furthermore illustrates the now available nanoparticle synthesis tool boxes based on modified flamespray synthesis from our laboratories at ETH Zurich. Since scaling concepts for flame synthesis, including large-scale filtration and powder handling, have become available commercially, the development of industrial applications of complex nanoparticles of metals, alloys or most other thermally stable, inorganic compounds can now be considered a feasible alternative to traditional top-down manufacturing or liquid-intense wet chemistry.

Knudsen effusion mass spectrometric determination of the complex vapor composition of samarium, europium, and ytterbium bromides

RATIONALE The vaporization of Sm, Eu, and Yb tri- and dibromides is accompanied by decomposition and disproportionation reactions. These result in complex vapor compositions whose analysis is an intricate problem for experimentalists. Approaches have been developed to interpret mass spectra and accurately determine the vapor composition of thermally unstable compounds. METHODS A sector type magnet instrument was used. A combined ion source allowed the study of both the molecular and ionic vapor compositions in the electron ionization (EI) and the thermionic emission (TE) modes. The methodological approaches were based on a joint analysis of the ionization efficiency functions, the temperature and time dependences of the ion currents, and special mathematical data evaluation. RESULTS The vaporization of SmBr3, YbBr3, SmBr2, EuBr2, and YbBr2 was studied in the temperature range of 850–1300 K. An initial stage of incongruent vaporization was observed in the case of the tribromides, SmBr2, and YbBr2. This eventually changed to a congruent vaporization stage. Various neutral (Ln, Br, Br2, LnBr, LnBr2, LnBr3, Ln2Br4, Ln2Br5, and Ln2Br6) and charged (Br–, LnBr3–, LnBr4–) species were detected at different vaporization stages. CONCLUSIONS The quantitative vapor composition of Sm, Eu, and Yb tri- and dibromides was determined. It was found that only EuBr2 was stable in the studied temperature range. The developed approaches can be useful in the case of other thermally unstable compounds.

Nominal compounds in Mapudungun

It is perhaps unsurprising that the rich agglutinative-polysynthetic verb morphology of Mapudungun has drawn most attention in linguistic studies. So far unnoticed in the literature are Mapudungun complex noun phrases, which show a puzzling distribution in terms of the internal structure they display. Some complex NPs are head-final (mapu-che ‘people of the land’). Others are head-initial, and of these a subset appears to be less lexicalized. In some cases, all three possibilities are found with the same components: mamüll-che ‘wood people’, che-mamüll ‘people made of wood’, and che mamüll ‘wood-like people’. The present paper reviews the comparatively modest literature on these phenomena, deals with them in an account based on semantic factors, and places them in a broader typological context.

Nickel(II)-, cobalt(II)-, copper(II)-, and zinc(II)-phthalate and 1-methylimidazole coordination compounds: synthesis, crystal structures and magnetic properties

Three new coordination polymers [M(Pht)(1-MeIm)2]n (where M=Cu (1), Zn (2), Co (3); Pht2−=dianion of o-phthalic acid; 1-MeIm=1-methylimidazole) and two compounds [M(1-MeIm)6](HPht)2 · 2H2O (M=Co (4), Ni (5)) have been synthesized and characterized by X-ray crystallography. The structures of 1–3 (2 is isostructural to 3) consist of [M(1-MeIm)2] building units connected by 1,6-bridging phthalate ions to form infinite chains. In complex 1, each copper(II) center adopts a square coordination mode of N2O2 type by two O atoms from different phthalate ions and two N atoms of 1-MeIm, whereas in 3 two independent metal atoms are tetrahedrally (N2O2) coordinated to a pair of Pht ligands and a pair of 1-MeIm molecules. There are only van der Waals interactions between the chains in 1, while the three-dimensional network in 3 is assembled by C–H⋯O contacts. In contrast to polymers 1–3 the structures of 4 and 5 (complexes are also isostructural) are made up of the [M(1-MeIm)6]2+ cation, two hydrogen phthalate anions (HPht−) and two H2O solvate molecules. The coordination around each metal(II) atom is octahedral with six nitrogen atoms of 1-MeIm. Extended hydrogen bonding networks embracing the solvate water molecules and a phthalate residue as well as the weak C–H⋯O interactions stabilize the three-dimensional structures. Magnetic studies clearly show that the magnetic ions do not interact with each other. Furthermore, in compound 4 we have another example of a highly anisotropic Co2+ ion with a rhombic g-tensor and large zero-field-splitting. The complexes were also characterized by IR and 1H NMR spectroscopy, thermogravimetric analysis, and all data are discussed in the terms of known structures.

Comparative characterisation of two nitroreductases from Giardia lamblia as potential activators of nitro compounds

Giardia lamblia is a protozoan parasite that causes giardiasis, a diarrhoeal disease affecting humans and various animal species. Nitro drugs such as the nitroimidazole metronidazole and the nitrothiazolide nitazoxanide are used for treatment of giardiasis. Nitroreductases such as GlNR1 and GlNR2 may play a role in activation or inactivation of these drugs. The aim of this work is to characterise these two enzymes using functional assays. For respective analyses recombinant analogues from GlNR1 and GlNR2 were produced in Escherichia coli. E. coli expressing GlNR1 and GlNR2 alone or together were grown in the presence of nitro compounds. Furthermore, pull-down assays were performed using HA-tagged GlNR1 and GlNR2 as baits. As expected, E. coli expressing GlNR1 were more susceptible to metronidazole under aerobic and semi-aerobic and to nitazoxanide under semi-aerobic growth conditions whereas E. coli expressing GlNR2 were susceptible to neither drug. Interestingly, expression of both nitroreductases gave the same results as expression of GlNR2 alone. In functional assays, both nitroreductases had their strongest activities on the quinone menadione (vitamin K3) and FAD, but reduction of nitro compounds including the nitro drugs metronidazole and nitazoxanidewas clearly detected. Full reduction of 7-nitrocoumarin to 7-aminocoumarin was preferentially achieved with GlNR2. Pull-down assays revealed that GlNR1 and GlNR2 interacted in vivo forming a multienzyme complex. These findings suggest that both nitroreductases are multifunctional. Their main biological role may reside in the reduction of vitamin K analogues and FAD. Activation by GlNR1 or inactivation by GlNR2 of nitro drugs may be the consequence of a secondary enzymatic activity either yielding (GlNR1) or eliminating (GlNR2) toxic intermediates after reduction of these compounds. © 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of Australian Society for Parasitology. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license

Regulation of the heat shock response by thiol-reactive compounds in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Cells govern their activities and modulate their interactions with the environment to achieve homeostasis. The heat shock response (HSR) is one of the most well studied fundamental cellular responses to environmental and physiological challenges, resulting in rapid synthesis of heat shock proteins (HSPs), which serve to protect cellular constituents from the deleterious effects of stress. In addition to its role in cytoprotection, the HSR also influences lifespan and is associated with a variety of human diseases including cancer, aging and neurodegenerative disorders. In most eukaryotes, the HSR is primarily mediated by the highly conserved transcription factor HSF1, which recognizes target hsp genes by binding to heat shock elements (HSEs) in their promoters. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to identify small molecules as potential pharmacological activators of HSF1 that could be used for therapeutic benefit in the treatment of human diseases relevant to protein conformation. However, the detailed mechanisms through which these molecules drive HSR activation remain unclear. In this work, I utilized the baker's yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae as a model system to identify a group of thiol-reactive molecules including oxidants, transition metals and metalloids, and electrophiles, as potent activators of yeast Hsf1. Using an artificial HSE-lacZ reporter and the glucocorticoid receptor system (GR), these diverse thiol-reactive compounds are shown to activate Hsf1 and inhibit Hsp90 chaperone complex activity in a reciprocal, dose-dependent manner. To further understand whether cells sense these reactive compounds through accumulation of unfolded proteins, the proline analog azetidine-2-carboxylic acid (AZC) and protein cross-linker dithiobis(succinimidyl propionate) (DSP) were used to force misfolding of nascent polypeptides and existing cytosolic proteins, respectively. Both unfolding reagents display kinetic HSP induction profiles dissimilar to those generated by thiol-reactive compounds. Moreover, AZC treatment leads to significant cytotoxicity, which is not observed in the presence of the thiol-reactive compounds at the concentrations sufficient to induce Hsf1. Additionally, DSP treatment has little to no effect on Hsp90 functions. Together with the ultracentrifugation analysis of cell lysates that detected no insoluble protein aggregates, my data suggest that at concentrations sufficient to induce Hsf1, thiol-reactive compounds do not induce the HSR via a mechanism based on accumulation of unfolded cytosolic proteins. Another possibility is that thiol-reactive compounds may influence aspects of the protein quality control system such as the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS). To address this hypothesis, β-galactosidase reporter fusions were used as model substrates to demonstrate that thiol-reactive compounds do not inhibit ubiquitin activating enzymes (E1) or proteasome activity. Therefore, thiol-reactive compounds do not activate the HSR by inhibiting UPS-dependent protein degradation. I therefore hypothesized that these molecules may directly inactivate protein chaperones, known as repressors of Hsf1. To address this possibility, a thiol-reactive biotin probe was used to demonstrate in vitro that the yeast cytosolic Hsp70 Ssa1, which partners with Hsp90 to repress Hsf1, is specifically modified. Strikingly, mutation of conserved cysteine residues in Ssa1 renders cells insensitive to Hsf1 activation by cadmium and celastrol but not by heat shock. Conversely, substitution with the sulfinic acid and steric bulk mimic aspartic acid led to constitutive activation of Hsf1. Cysteine 303, located in the nucleotide-binding/ATPase domain of Ssa1, was shown to be modified in vivo by a model organic electrophile using Click chemistry technology, verifying that Ssa1 is a direct target for thiol-reactive compounds through adduct formation. Consistently, cadmium pretreatment promoted cells thermotolerance, which is abolished in cells carrying SSA1 cysteine mutant alleles. Taken together, these findings demonstrate that Hsp70 acts as a sensor to induce the cytoprotective heat shock response in response to environmental or endogenously produced thiol-reactive molecules and can discriminate between two distinct environmental stressors.