The value premium and time-varying volatility

Numerous studies have documented the failure of the static and conditional capital asset pricing models to explain the difference in returns between value and growth stocks. This paper examines the post-1963 value premium by employing a model that captures the time-varying total risk of the value-minus-growth portfolios. Our results show that the time-series of value premia is strongly and positively correlated with its volatility. This conclusion is robust to the criterion used to sort stocks into value and growth portfolios and to the country under review (the US and the UK). Our paper is consistent with evidence on the possible role of idiosyncratic risk in explaining equity returns, and also with a separate strand of literature concerning the relative lack of reversibility of value firms' investment decisions.

A simplified pricing model for volatility futures

We develop a general model to price VIX futures contracts. The model is adapted to test both the constant elasticity of variance (CEV) and the Cox–Ingersoll–Ross formulations, with and without jumps. Empirical tests on VIX futures prices provide out-of-sample estimates within 2% of the actual futures price for almost all futures maturities. We show that although jumps are present in the data, the models with jumps do not typically outperform the others; in particular, we demonstrate the important benefits of the CEV feature in pricing futures contracts. We conclude by examining errors in the model relative to the VIX characteristics

Systematic risk estimation in symmetric models

The aim of this article is to discuss the estimation of the systematic risk in capital asset pricing models with heavy-tailed error distributions to explain the asset returns. Diagnostic methods for assessing departures from the model assumptions as well as the influence of observations on the parameter estimates are also presented. It may be shown that outlying observations are down weighted in the maximum likelihood equations of linear models with heavy-tailed error distributions, such as Student-t, power exponential, logistic II, so on. This robustness aspect may also be extended to influential observations. An application in which the systematic risk estimate of Microsoft is compared under normal and heavy-tailed errors is presented for illustration.

Análise de investimentos para abertura de pontos de venda no setor supermercadista : o caso de uma pequena empresa familiar

O grande objetivo em finanças para os gestores das empresas é o de proporcionar aumento de valor aos acionistas. Para que isso possa ser efetivamente implementado, é necessário que o investimento proporcione para o acionista um retorno superior ao custo de oportunidade do seu capital, contemplando o risco do investimento, mensurado através de um modelo de avaliação. Este trabalho apresenta os principais conceitos de avaliação de ativos, destacando a criação de valor como a medida mais importante do desempenho da empresa. O fluxo de caixa descontado é abordado como o método que melhor resume o conceito de criação de valor, destacando-se o fluxo de caixa do acionista e o fluxo de caixa da empresa. Também são apresentados a forma de apuração dos fluxos de caixa, a estimativa das taxas de crescimento, algumas situações especiais onde o fluxo de caixa descontado necessita de adaptações e outros métodos alternativos de análise de investimentos, sendo que nenhum deles é capaz de superar a técnica do valor presente líquido – VPL, pois o método do VPL utiliza todos os fluxos de caixa de um projeto, descontando-os corretamente de acordo com o custo de oportunidade do capital O estudo mostra, ainda, uma rápida explanação das principais técnicas de mensuração do risco e do retorno exigido pelos investidores ou proprietários segundo a teoria de valor, como o CAPM (Capital Asset Price Model), o APM (Arbitrage Pricing Model) e o Multifatorial, destacando-se entre eles a dificuldade de mensuração do custo do capital próprio em empresas de capital fechado no Brasil, para a devida apuração da taxa de desconto. A metodologia proposta é aplicada na avaliação do investimento, em um novo ponto de venda, realizado por uma pequena empresa familiar do setor supermercadista. Dessa forma, ao final do estudo, propõe-se a utilização de uma ferramenta gerencial, baseada no fluxo de caixa descontado, para avaliação de futuros investimentos da empresa, buscando-se assim a maximização de valor para o acionista ou proprietário.

Endividamento, custo do capital e valor da empresa: uma análise para o setor siderúrgico

Na utilização de variados tipos de financiamento, a empresa necessita, primariamente, da análise do custo do capital - custo básico para remuneração dos recursos próprios e de terceiros que compõem a estrutura de capital - o qual deve ser a taxa referencial para haver retorno do investimento e geração_ de valor, emergindo, por conseguinte, a discussão acerca da repercussão do nível de endividamento, e, conseqüentemente, do custo de capital sobre o valor da empresa. Nesse contexto, existem modelos que consideram o endividamento irrelevante no valor da empresa, como: análise pelo Lucro Operacional ou de Modiglianni e Miller sem Imposto de Renda. Em outro extremo, há abordagens que o têm como função direta para o valor, como a do Lucro Líquido e de Modigliani e Miller com imposto de renda. Entre essas posições antagônicas podem ser citadas a posição Tradicional e do Custo de Dificuldades Financeiras, que admitem a influência do endividamento após determinado nível de alavancagem. A Teoria da Informação Assimétrica, por sua vez, sustenta ser a sinalização enviada com mudanças na estrutura de capital fator de influência no valor da empresa. No modelo de avaliação por Opções, argumenta-se que, dentro de determinadas hipóteses, a riqueza dos acionistas é incrementada por uma alavancagem financeira mais elevada. A avaliação em situação de incerteza para a empresa é refletida no modelo que utiliza o Capital Asset Price Model, onde argumenta-se que um aumento no endividamento eleva o beta e, conseqüentemente, o retorno esperado. Por último, há a análise baseada em fluxos de caixa onde o valor presente da empresa é adicionado ao valor presente líquido dos efeitos intrínsecos ao financiamento. O cálculo do valor da empresa também pode ser feito através do fluxo de caixa do acionista descontado pela taxa de remuneração do capital próprio ou fluxo operacional descontado pelo custo médio ponderado do capital, subtraindo o valor do endividamento. Este trabalho se propôs a analisar, durante o período 1994-1998, a relação do endividamento com o custo médio ponderado do capital e com valor de mercado de oito empresas, componentes de amostra representativa do setor siderúrgico brasileiro, e também a estimar o valor do capital próprio, através do modelo de desconto do fluxo de caixa operacional pelo custo médio ponderado do capital, verificando a aderência dessa avaliação, através de comparação com o valor de mercado observado. Pela análise dos resultados observamos, uma relação inversa entre custo médio do capital e endividamento. No que se refere à avaliação da empresa, o modelo apresentado de desconto pelo custo médio ponderado do capital, revelou-se de modo geral, satisfatório, com o valor estimado explicando 68% do valor de mercado, na análise da regressão; sendo que as maiores distorções foram verificadas nas empresas que tiveram grau de alavancagem elevado.

Tests of conditional asset pricing models in the brazilian stock market

In this paper, we test a version of the conditional CAPM with respect to a local market portfolio, proxied by the Brazilian stock index during the period 1976-1992. We also test a conditional APT modeI by using the difference between the 3-day rate (Cdb) and the overnight rate as a second factor in addition to the market portfolio in order to capture the large inflation risk present during this period. The conditional CAPM and APT models are estimated by the Generalized Method of Moments (GMM) and tested on a set of size portfolios created from individual securities exchanged on the Brazilian markets. The inclusion of this second factor proves to be important for the appropriate pricing of the portfolios.

A stochastic discount factor approach to asset pricing using panel data

Using the Pricing Equation, in a panel-data framework, we construct a novel consistent estimator of the stochastic discount factor (SDF) mimicking portfolio which relies on the fact that its logarithm is the ìcommon featureîin every asset return of the economy. Our estimator is a simple function of asset returns and does not depend on any parametric function representing preferences, making it suitable for testing di§erent preference speciÖcations or investigating intertemporal substitution puzzles.

A stochastic discount factor approach to asset pricing using panel data asymptotics

Using the Pricing Equation in a panel-data framework, we construct a novel consistent estimator of the stochastic discount factor (SDF) which relies on the fact that its logarithm is the "common feature" in every asset return of the economy. Our estimator is a simple function of asset returns and does not depend on any parametric function representing preferences. The techniques discussed in this paper were applied to two relevant issues in macroeconomics and finance: the first asks what type of parametric preference-representation could be validated by asset-return data, and the second asks whether or not our SDF estimator can price returns in an out-of-sample forecasting exercise. In formal testing, we cannot reject standard preference specifications used in the macro/finance literature. Estimates of the relative risk-aversion coefficient are between 1 and 2, and statistically equal to unity. We also show that our SDF proxy can price reasonably well the returns of stocks with a higher capitalization level, whereas it shows some difficulty in pricing stocks with a lower level of capitalization.

Asset pricing when risk sharing is limited by default: a theoretical framework

We study the asset pricing implications of an endowment economy when agents can default on contracts that would leave them otherwise worse off. We specialize and extend the environment studied by Kocherlakota (1995) and Kehoe and Levine (1993) to make it comparable to standard studies of asset pricillg. We completely charactize efficient allocations for several special cases. We illtroduce a competitive equilibrium with complete markets alld with elldogellous solvency constraints. These solvellcy constraints are such as to prevent default -at the cost of reduced risk sharing. We show a version of the classical welfare theorems for this equilibrium definition. We characterize the pricing kernel, alld compare it with the one for economies without participation constraints : interest rates are lower and risk premia can be bigger depending on the covariance of the idiosyncratic and aggregate shocks. Quantitative examples show that for reasonable parameter values the relevant marginal rates of substitution fali within the Hansen-Jagannathan bounds.

A pricing model for sovereign bonde

Similar to the modeling used to evaluate ccnporate boncls, where it is a put optioo. 011 corporate assets, we modeled sovereign bonds. Instead of company's assets as underlining assets, we used foreign excbange reserves. The results show a fundamental pricing model for sovereign bond and an optimum relation between the debt size, term, mix between floating and fixed interest payments, and size of reserves. The model is tested with a Brazilian BradyBond.

Toward a venture capital-backed entrepreneurship model in Brazil

It is well documented venture capital‟s positive impact on creation and development of highly successful innovative companies worldwide. Venture capital not only provides funding to startups and SMEs (small and medium enterprises) that usually have financing gap, especially in emerging markets, but also brings a whole package of valuable resources that reduces companies‟ mortality rates. Using quantitative data obtained from an empirical survey as background, this paper discusses the role of venture capital in the success of innovative startups and SMEs, and it examines if, and to what extent, venture capitalists are supporting the entrepreneurial activity in Brazil. I focused on the portfolio companies analyzes and confirmed the hypothesis that the venture capital industry has been supporting entrepreneurship in Brazil. Second, I identified an important evidence of a venture capital‟s positive impact on economic activity, especially the capital market. Third, it became clear that venture capital-back entrepreneurship is highly concentrated in the Southeast region. And fourth, I identified that private equity expansion is also playing a key role on that dynamics. As consequence, I conclude that the venture capital (and private equity) industry has been very important to build an enormously dynamic and strong local entrepreneurial economy. Its committed capital grew 50% per year between 2005 and 2008 to achieve US$27 billion, which invested US$ 11 billion, which employs 1,400 professionals (75% with post-graduate degrees) and maintains 482 portfolio companies, mostly SMEs. In addition, venture capital-backed companies represented one third of the IPOs that occurred in Brazil between 2004 and 2008 (approximately US$15 billion).

Agricultural commodities pricing model applied to the Brazilian sugar market

This article suggests a pricing model for commodities used to produce biofuel. The model is based on the concept that the deterministic component of the Wiener process is not constant and depends on time and exogenous variables. The model, which incorporates theory of storage, the convenience yield and the seasonality of harvests, was applied in the Brazilian sugar market. After predictions were made with the Kalman filter, the model produced results that were statistically more accurate than those returned by the two-factor model available in the literature.