The human coronavirus 229E superfamily 1 helicase has RNA and DNA duplex-unwinding activities with 5'-to-3' polarity.

The human coronavirus 229E replicase gene encodes a protein, p66HEL, that contains a putative zinc finger structure linked to a putative superfamily (SF) 1 helicase. A histidine-tagged form of this protein, HEL, was expressed using baculovirus vectors in insect cells. The purified recombinant protein had in vitro ATPase activity that was strongly stimulated by poly(U), poly(dT), poly(C), and poly(dA), but not by poly(G). The recombinant protein also had both RNA and DNA duplex-unwinding activities with 5'-to-3' polarity. The DNA helicase activity of the enzyme preferentially unwound 5'-oligopyrimidine-tailed, partial-duplex substrates and required a tail length of at least 10 nucleotides for effective unwinding. The combined data suggest that the coronaviral SF1 helicase functionally differs from the previously characterized RNA virus SF2 helicases.

Comprehensive genomic screens identify a role for PLZF-RAR alpha as a positive regulator of cell proliferation via direct regulation of c-MYC

The t(11; 17)(q23;q21) translocation is associated with a retinoic acid (RA)-insensitive form of acute promyelocytic leukemia (APL), involving the production of reciprocal fusion proteins, promyelocytic leukemia zinc finger-retinoic acid receptor alpha (PLZF-RAR alpha) and RAR alpha-PLZF. Using a combination of chromatin immuno-precipitation promotor arrays (ChIP-chip) and gene expression profiling, we identify novel, direct target genes of PLZF-RAR alpha that tend to be repressed in APL compared with other myeloid leukemias, supporting the role of PLZF-RAR alpha as an aberrant repressor in APL. In primary murine hematopoietic progenitors, PLZF-RAR alpha promotes cell growth, and represses Dusp6 and Cdkn2d, while inducing c-Myc expression, consistent with its role in leukemogenesis. PLZF-RAR alpha binds to a region of the c-MYC promoter overlapping a functional PLZF site and antagonizes PLZF-mediated repression, suggesting that PLZF-RAR alpha may act as a dominant-negative version of PLZF by affecting the regulation of shared targets. RA induced the differentiation of PLZF-RAR alpha-transformed murine hematopoietic cells and reduced the frequency of clonogenic progenitors, concomitant with c-Myc down-regulation. Surviving RA-treated cells retained the ability to be replated and this was associated with sustained c-Myc expression and repression of Dusp6, suggesting a role for these genes in maintaining a self-renewal pathway triggered by PLZF-RAR alpha. (Blood. 2009; 114: 5499-5511)

Expression of the NF-κB inhibitor A20 is altered in the Cystic Fibrosis epithelium

Research Question: A20 is an LPS-inducible, cytoplasmic zinc finger protein, that inhibits TLR-activated NF-?B signalling by deubiquitinating TRAF6. A20 action is facilitated by complex formation with RNF11, Itch and TAX1BP1. This study investigates if the expression of A20 is altered in the chronically inflamed Cystic Fibrosis (CF) airway epithelium.

Methods: Nasal epithelial cells from CF patients (F508del homozygous), non-CF controls and immortalised epithelial cells (16HBE14o- and CFBE41o-) were stimulated with LPS. Cytoplasmic expression of A20 and expression of NF-?B subunits was analysed. Formation of the A20 ubiquitin editing complex was also investigated.

Results: In CFBE41o-, peak LPS-induced A20 expression was delayed compared with 16HBE14o- and fell significantly below basal levels 12-24 h after LPS stimulation. This was confirmed in primary CF airway cells. Additionally, a significant inverse relationship between A20 and p65 expression was observed. Inhibitor studies showed that A20 does not undergo proteasomal degradation in CFBE41o-. A20 interacted with TAX1BP1, RNF11 and TRAF6 in 16HBE14o- cells, but these interactions were not observed in CFBE41o-.

Conclusion: he expression of A20 is significantly altered in CF and important interactions with complex members and target proteins are lost, which may contribute to the state of chronic NF-?B-driven inflammation.

Bioinformatic evaluation of transcriptional regulation of WNT pathway genes with reference to diabetic nephropathy

Objective: Diabetic nephropathy (DN) is a microvascular complication of diabetes. Members of the WNT/ β-catenin pathways have been implicated in interstitial fibrosis and glomerular sclerosis, characteristic hallmarks of DN. These processes are controlled, in part, by transcription factors (TFs), proteins which bind to gene promoter regions attenuating their regulation. We sought to identify predicted cis-acting transcription factor binding sites (TFBS) over-represented within the promoter regions of WNT pathway members compared to genes across the genome.Methods: We assessed the frequency of 62 TFBS motifs from the JASPAR databases on 65 WNT pathway genes. P-values were estimated on the hypergeometric distribution for each TF. Gene expression profiles of enriched motifs were examined from DN-related datasets to assess clinical significance.Results: TFBS motifs transcription factor AP-2 alpha (TFAP2A), myeloid zinc finger 1 (MZF1), and specificity protein 1 (SP1) were significantly enriched within WNT pathway genes (P-values<6.83x10-29, 1.34x10-11 and 3.01x10-6 respectively). MZF1 gene expression was significantly increased in DN in a whole kidney dataset (fold change = 1.16; 16% increase; P = 0.03). TFAP2A gene expression was decreased in an independent dataset (fold change = -1.02; P = 0.03). SP1 was not differentially expressed in any datasets examined.Conclusions: Three TFBS profiles are significantly enriched within the WNT pathway genes examined highlighting the use of in silico analyses for identifying key regulators of this pathway. Modification of TF binding to gene promoter regions involved in DN pathology may limit progression, making refinement of targeted therapeutic strategies possible through clearer delineation of their role.

Induction of the inflammatory regulator A20 by gibberellic acid in airway epithelial cells

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: NF-κB-driven inflammation is negatively regulated by the zinc finger protein A20. Gibberellic acid (GA3 ) is a plant-derived diterpenoid with documented anti-inflammatory activity, which is reported to induce A20-like zinc finger proteins in plants. Here, we sought to investigate the anti-inflammatory effect of GA3 in airway epithelial cells and determine if the anti-inflammatory action relates to A20 induction.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH: Primary nasal epithelial cells and a human bronchial epithelial cell line (16HBE14o-) were used. Cells were pre-incubated with GA3 , stimulated with Pseudomonas aeruginosa LPS; IL-6 and IL-8 release, A20, NF-κB and IκBα expression were then evaluated. To determine if any observed anti-inflammatory effect occurred via an A20-dependent mechanism, A20 was silenced using siRNA.

KEY RESULTS: Cells pre-incubated with GA3 had significantly increased levels of A20 mRNA (4 h) and protein (24 h), resulting in a significant reduction in IL-6 and IL-8 release. This effect was mediated via reduced IκBα degradation and reduced NF-κB (p65) expression. Furthermore, the anti-inflammatory action of GA3 was abolished in A20-silenced cells.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: We showed that A20 induction by GA3 attenuates inflammation in airway epithelial cells, at least in part through its effect on NF-κB and IκBα. GA3 or gibberellin-derived derivatives could potentially be developed into anti-inflammatory drugs for the treatment of chronic inflammatory diseases associated with A20 dysfunction.

Inhibition of cellular proliferation by the Wilms tumor suppressor WT1 requires association with the inducible chaperone Hsp70

The Wilms tumor suppressor WT1 encodes a zinc finger transcription factor that is expressed in glomerular podocytes during a narrow window in kidney development. By immunoprecipitation and protein microsequencing analysis, we have identified a major cellular protein associated with endogenous WT1 to be the inducible chaperone Hsp70. WT1 and Hsp70 are physically associated in embryonic rat kidney cells, in primary Wilms tumor specimens and in cultured cells with inducible expression of WT1. Colocalization of WT1 and Hsp70 is evident within podocytes of the developing kidney, and Hsp70 is recruited to the characteristic subnuclear clusters that contain WT1. The amino-terminal transactivation domain of WT1 is required for binding to Hsp70, and expression of that domain itself is sufficient to induce expression of Hsp70 through the heat shock element (HSE). Substitution of a heterologous Hsp70-binding domain derived from human DNAJ is sufficient to restore the functional properties of a WT1 protein with an amino-terminal deletion, an effect that is abrogated by a point mutation in DNAJ that reduces binding to Hsp70. These observations indicate that Hsp70 is an important cofactor for the function of WT1, and suggest a potential role for this chaperone during kidney differentiation.

Effects of nanoparticles exposure in the mussel Mytilus Galloprovincialis

Tese de dout., Ciências do Mar, Terra e Ambiente (Ecotoxicologia), Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Univ. do Algarve, 2012

Identification and characterization of a Catharanthus roseus mutant altered in monoterpenoid indole alkaloid biosynthesis

The Madagascar periwinkle [Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don] is a commercially important horticultural flower species and is the only source for several pharmaceutically valuable monoterpenoid indole alkaloids (MIAs), including the powerful antihypertensive ajmalicine and the antineoplastic agents vincristine and vinblastine. While biosynthesis of MIA precursors has been elucidated, conversion of the common MIA precursor strictosidine to MIAs of different families, for example ajmalicine, catharanthine or vindoline, remains uncharacterized. Deglycosylation of strictosidine by the key enzyme Strictosidine beta-glucosidase (SGD) leads to a pool of uncharacterized reaction products that are diverted into the different MIA families, but the downstream reactions are uncharacterized. Screening of 3600 EMS (ethyl methane sulfonate) mutagenized C. roseus plants to identify mutants with altered MIA profiles yielded one plant with high ajmalicine, and low catharanthine and vindoline content. RNA sequencing and comparative bioinformatics of mutant and wildtype plants showed up-regulation of SGD and the transcriptional repressor Zinc finger Catharanthus transcription factor (ZCT1) in the mutant line. The increased SGD activity in mutants seems to yield a larger pool of uncharacterized SGD reaction products that are channeled away from catharanthine and vindoline towards biosynthesis of ajmalicine when compared to the wildtype. Further bioinformatic analyses, and crossings between mutant and wildtype suggest a transcription factor upstream of SGD and ZCT1 to be mutated, leading to up-regulation of Sgd and Zct1. The crossing experiments further show that biosynthesis of the different MIA families is differentially regulated and highly complex. Three new transcription factors were identified by bioinformatics that seem to be involved in the regulation of Zct1 and Sgd expression, leading to the high ajmalicine phenotype. Increased cathenamine reductase activity in the mutant converts the pool of SGD reaction products into ajmalicine and its stereoisomer tetrahydroalstonine. The stereochemistry of ajmalicine and tetrahydroalstonine biosynthesis in vivo and in vitro was further characterized. In addition, a new clade of perakine reductase-like enzymes was identified that reduces the SGD reaction product vallesiachotamine in a stereo-specific manner, characterizing one of the many reactions immediately downstream of SGD that determine the different MIA families. This study establishes that RNA sequencing and comparative bioinformatics, in combination with molecular and biochemical characterization, are valuable tools to determine the genetic basis for mutations that trigger phenotypes, and this approach can also be used for identification of new enzymes and transcription factors.

Interactions protéiques et relation dynamique entre phosphorylation / sumoylation / ubiquitination des protéines TIF1α, β et PML: détection in vivo par BRET

Trois protéines de la famille TRIM (Motif TRIpartite), TIF1α, β (Transcriptional Intermediary Factor 1) et PML (ProMyelocytic Leukaemia¬), font l’objet de cette étude. TIF1α est connu comme un coactivateur des récepteurs nucléaires et TIF1β comme le corépresseur universel des protéines KRAB-multidoigt de zinc dont le prototype étudié ici est ZNF74. PML possède divers rôles dont le plus caractérisé est celui d’être l’organisateur principal et essentiel des PML-NBs (PML-Nuclear Bodies), des macrostructures nucléaires très dynamiques regroupant et coordonnant plus de 40 protéines. Il est à noter que la fonction de TIF1α, β et PML est régulée par une modification post-traductionnelle, la sumoylation, qui implique le couplage covalent de la petite protéine SUMO (Small Ubiquitin like MOdifier) à des lysines de ces trois protéines cibles. Cette thèse propose de développer des méthodes utilisant le BRET (Bioluminescence Resonance Energy Transfert) afin de détecter dans des cellules vivantes et en temps réel des interactions non-covalentes de protéines nucléaires mais aussi leur couplage covalent à SUMO. En effet, le BRET n’a jamais été exploré jusqu’alors pour étudier les interactions non-covalentes et covalentes de protéines nucléaires. L’étude de l’interaction de protéines transcriptionnellement actives est parfois difficile par des méthodes classiques du fait de leur grande propension à agréger (famille TRIM) ou de leur association à la matrice nucléaire (ZNF74). L’homo et l’hétérodimérisation de TIF1α, β ainsi que leur interaction avec ZNF74 sont ici testées sur des protéines entières dans des cellules vivantes de mammifères répondant aux résultats conflictuels de la littérature et démontrant que le BRET peut être avantageusement utilisé comme alternative aux essais plus classiques basés sur la transcription. Du fait de l’hétérodimérisation confirmée de TIF1α et β, le premier article présenté ouvre la possibilité d’une relation étroite entre les récepteurs nucléaires et les protéines KRAB- multidoigt de zinc. Des études précédentes ont démontré que la sumoylation de PML est impliquée dans sa dégradation induite par l’As2O3 et dépendante de RNF4, une E3 ubiquitine ligase ayant pour substrat des chaînes de SUMO (polySUMO). Dans le second article, grâce au développement d’une nouvelle application du BRET pour la détection d’interactions covalentes et non-covalentes avec SUMO (BRETSUMO), nous établissons un nouveau lien entre la sumoylation de PML et sa dégradation. Nous confirmons que le recrutement de RNF4 dépend de SUMO mais démontrons également l’implication du SBD (Sumo Binding Domain) de PML dans sa dégradation induite par l’As2O3 et/ou RNF4. De plus, nous démontrons que des sérines, au sein du SBD de PML, qui sont connues comme des cibles de phosphorylation par la voie de la kinase CK2, régulent les interactions non-covalentes de ce SBD mettant en évidence, pour la première fois, que les interactions avec un SBD peuvent dépendre d’un évènement de phosphorylation (“SBD phospho-switch”). Nos résultats nous amènent à proposer l’hypothèse que le recrutement de PML sumoylé au niveau des PML-NBs via son SBD, favorise le recrutement d’une autre activité E3 ubiquitine ligase, outre celle de RNF4, PML étant lui-même un potentiel candidat. Ceci suggère l’existence d’une nouvelle relation dynamique entre phosphorylation, sumoylation et ubiquitination de PML. Finalement, il est suggéré que PML est dégradé par deux voies différentes dépendantes de l’ubiquitine et du protéasome; la voie de CK2 et la voie de RNF4. Enfin une étude sur la sumoylation de TIF1β est également présentée en annexe. Cette étude caractérise les 6 lysines cibles de SUMO sur TIF1β et démontre que la sumoylation est nécessaire à l’activité répressive de TIF1β mais n’est pas impliquée dans son homodimérisation ou son interaction avec la boîte KRAB. La sumoylation est cependant nécessaire au recrutement d’histones déacétylases, dépendante de son homodimérisation et de l’intégrité du domaine PHD. Alors que l’on ne connaît pas de régulateur physiologique de la sumoylation outre les enzymes directement impliquées dans la machinerie de sumoylation, nous mettons en évidence que la sumoylation de TIF1β est positivement régulée par son interaction avec le domaine KRAB et suggérons que ces facteurs transcriptionnels recrutent TIF1β à l’ADN au niveau de promoteur et augmentent son activité répressive en favorisant sa sumoylation.

The BTB/POZ Transcription Factor Miz-1 Is Required To Regulate The Commitment, Survival And Differentiation Of Early B And T Cell Lineages

Les lymphocytes B et T sont issus de cellules progénitrices lymphoïdes de la moelle osseuse qui se différencient grâce à l’action de facteurs de transcription, cytokines et voies de signalisation, dont l’interleukine-7 (IL-7)/IL-7 récepteur (IL-7R). Le facteur de transcription c-Myc est exprimé par les cellules lymphoïdes et contrôle leur croissance et leur différenciation. Cette régulation transcriptionnelle peut être coordonnée par le complexe c-Myc/Myc-Interacting Zinc finger protein-1 (Miz-1). Le but de ce projet était de comprendre les mécanismes qui impliquent Miz-1 et le complexe c-Myc/Miz-1 dans le développement des lymphocytes B et T. Pour réaliser ce projet, des souris déficientes pour le domaine de transactivation de Miz-1 (Miz-1POZ) et des souris à allèles mutantes pour c-MycV394D, mutation qui empêche l’interaction avec Miz-1, ont été générées. La caractérisation des souris Miz 1POZ a démontré que l’inactivation de Miz-1 perturbe le développement des lymphocytes B et T aux stades précoces de leur différenciation qui dépend de l’IL-7. L’analyse de la cascade de signalisation IL-7/IL-7R a montré que ces cellules surexpriment la protéine inhibitrice SOCS1 qui empêche la phosphorylation de STAT5 et perturbe la régulation à la hausse de la protéine de survie Bcl-2. De plus, Miz-1 se lie directement au promoteur de SOCS1 et contrôle son activité. En plus de contrôler l’axe IL-7/IL-7R/STAT5/Bcl-2 spécifiquement aux stades précoces du développement afin d’assurer la survie des progéniteurs B et T, Miz-1 régule l’axe EBF/Pax-5/Rag-1/2 dans les cellules B afin de coordonner les signaux nécessaires pour la différenciation des cellules immatures. La caractérisation des souris c-MycV394D a montré, quant à elle, que les fonctions de Miz-1 dans les cellules B et T semblent indépendantes de c-Myc. Les cellules T des souris Miz-1POZ ont un défaut de différenciation additionnel au niveau de la -sélection, étape où les signaux initiés par le TCR remplacent ceux induits par IL-7 pour assurer la prolifération et la différenciation des thymocytes en stades plus matures. À cette étape du développement, une forme fonctionnelle de Miz-1 semble être requise pour contrôler le niveau d’activation de la voie p53, induite lors du processus de réarrangement V(D)J du TCR. L’expression de gènes pro-apoptotiques PUMA, NOXA, Bax et du régulateur de cycle cellulaire p21CIP1 est régulée à la hausse dans les cellules des souris Miz-1POZ. Ceci provoque un débalancement pro-apoptotique qui empêche la progression du cycle cellulaire des cellules TCR-positives. La survie des cellules peut être rétablie à ce stade de différenciation en assurant une coordination adéquate entre les signaux initiés par l’introduction d’un TCR transgénique et d’un transgène codant pour la protéine Bcl-2. En conclusion, ces études ont montré que Miz-1 intervient à deux niveaux du développement lymphoïde: l’un précoce en contrôlant la signalisation induite par l’IL-7 dans les cellules B et T, en plus de l’axe EBF/Pax-5/Rag-1/2 dans les cellules B; et l’autre tardif, en coordonnant les signaux de survie issus par le TCR et p53 dans les cellules T. Étant donné que les thymocytes et lymphocytes B immatures sont sujets à plusieurs rondes de prolifération, ces études serviront à mieux comprendre l’implication des régulateurs du cycle cellulaire comme c-Myc et Miz-1 dans la génération des signaux nécessaires à la différenciation non aberrante et à la survie des ces cellules. Enfin, les modèles expérimentaux, souris déficientes ou à allèles mutantes, utilisés pour ce travail permettront de mieux définir les bases moléculaires de la transformation maligne des lymphocytes B et T et de révéler les mécanismes conduisant au lymphome.

Etudes structurales et fonctionnelles des interactions de SUMO avec des proteines d'echafaudage modeles: TIF1beta, PIAS1 et PML

L’adaptation des cellules à leur environnement externe repose sur la transduction adéquate de signaux régulés par une pléthore d'événements moléculaires. Parmi ces événements moléculaires, les modifications post-traductionnelles (MPT) de protéines aident à intégrer, à traduire et à organiser de façon spatiotemporelle ces signaux pour que les cellules puissent réagir aux stimuli externes. Parmi les modifications post-traductionnelles, les petites protéines de la famille de l’Ubiquitine (Ublps, Ubiquitin-like proteins) jouent un rôle majeur dans presque toutes les voies de signalisation. Cette thèse rapporte des études fonctionnelles et structurales des interactions covalentes et non covalentes entre SUMO (Small Ubiquitin related MOdifier), un membre de la famille des Ublps, et trois protéines d'échafaudage, TIF1beta, le corépresseur universel des protéines KRAB-multidoigt de zinc, PIAS1, une ligase E3 pour SUMO et PML, un suppresseur de tumeur. La première étude rapporte l'identification et la caractérisation biochimique des sites de SUMOylation de TIF1beta. Nous avons déterminé que la modification covalente de six résidus lysine par SUMO est essentielle à l’activité de répression de la transcription induit par TIF1beta. En outre, nous présentons des évidences indiquant que la SUMOylation de TIF1 exige non seulement sa capacité à homo-oligomériser, mais est aussi positivement régulée par son interaction avec le domaine KRAB des protéines à doigts de zinc. Partant de ce constat, nous postulons que les protéines KRAB-multidoigt de zinc recrutent leur corépresseur TIF1betaà des gènes cibles, mais aussi accentuent son activité répressive grâce à l'augmentation de sa SUMOylation. Notre seconde étude révèle qu’en plus de réprimer la transcription en tant que MPT covalente, SUMO joue aussi un rôle important dans la répression en tant que partenaire non covalent d’interactions protéine-protéine. Nous avons montré que SUMO interagit simultanément avec deux enzymes de la machinerie de SUMOylation, l’unique enzyme de conjugaison E2, UBC9, et la ligase E3 PIAS1 au sein d’un complexe ternaire répresseur. En outre, nous révélons que la formation du complexe ternaire PIAS1:SUMO:UBC9 est modulée par le niveau de phosphorylation de résidus sérine juxtaposés à un motif d’interaction avec SUMO (SIM) dans PIAS1. Ainsi, SUMO agit comme un adaptateur spécifique qui stabilise les interactions UBC9 E2: E3 PIAS1. Partant de ce constat, nous proposons que les enzymes E2 et E3 des autres systèmes Ublps exploitent des mécanismes similaires dans le cadre de leur fonction Enfin, notre troisième étude explore la régulation des interactions non covalentes de SUMO par la phosphorylation. En utilisant une combinaison d'études in vivo et in vitro, nous démontrons que l'interaction entre SUMO1 et PML est régi par la phosphorylation dépendant de CK2 sur quatre résidus sérine de PML. Les structures cristallographiques des complexes PML-SIM:SUMO1 révèlent que les phospho-sérines de PML contactent des résidus de la région basique de SUMO1. Sachant que la kinase CK2 peut être induite par des kinases activables par le stress, ces résultats suggèrent que les interactions non-covalentes avec SUMO sont modulées par le stress cellulaire. Sur la base de cette constatation, nous postulons que des événements analogues affectent des protéines contenant des séquences SIM ciblées par CK2. En résumé, cette étude révèle qu’en plus de son rôle de MPT, SUMO peut fonctionner comme un adaptateur permettant des interactions spécifiques entre protéines tel que pour les enzymes E3 et E2.

Role of Rab5 in synaptic vesicle recycling

During synaptic transmission, NT-filled synaptic vesicles are released by Ca2+-triggered exocytosis at the active zone. Following exocytosis, SV membrane is immediately re-internalized and synaptic vesicles (SVs) are regenerated by a local recycling mechanism within the presynaptic terminal. It is debated whether an endosomal compartment is involved in this recycling process. In contrast, it is well known from cultured mammalian cells, that endocytic vesicles fuse to the early sorting endosome. The early endosome is a major sorting station of the cell where cargo is send into the degradative pathway to late endosome and lysosome or towards recycling. Each trafficking step is mediated by a certain protein of the Rab family. Rab proteins are small GTPases belonging to the Ras superfamily. They accumulate at their target compartments and have thereby been used as markers for the different endocytic organelles in cultured mammalian cells. Rab5 controls trafficking from the PM to the early endosome and has thereby been used as marker for this compartment. A second marker is based on the specific binding of the FYVE zinc finger protein domain to the lipid PI(3)P that is specifically generated at the early endosomal membrane. This study used the Drosophila NMJ as a model system to investigate the SV recycling process. In particular, three questions were addressed: First, is an endosomal compartment present at the synapse? Second, do SVs recycle through an endosome? Third, is Rab5 involved in SV recycling? We used GFP fusions of Rab5 and 2xFYVE to visualize endosomal compartments at the presynaptic terminal of Drosophila third instar larval NMJs. Furthermore, the endosomes are located within the pool of recycling SVs, labeled with the styryl-dye FM5-95. Using the temperature-sensitive mutation in Dynamin, shibirets, we showed that SV recycling involves trafficking through an intermediate endosomal compartment. In cultured mammalian cells, interfering with Rab5 function by expressing the dominant negative version, Rab5SN causes the fragmentation of the endosome and the accumulation of endocytic vesicles. In contrast, when Rab5 is overexpressed enlarged endosomal compartments were observed. In Drosophila, the endosomal compartment was disrupted when loss of function and dominant negative mutants of Rab5 were expressed. In addition, at the ultrastructural we observed an accumulation of endocytic vesicles in Rab5S43N expressing terminals and enlarged endosomes when Rab5 was overexpressed. Furthermore, interfering with Rab5 function using the dominant negative Rab5S43N caused a decrease in the SV recycling kinetics as shown by FM1-43 experiments. In contrast, overexpression of Rab5 or GFP-Rab5 caused an increase in the FM1-43 internalization rate. Finally, standard electrophysiological techniques were used to measure synaptic function. We found that the Rab5-mediated endosomal SV recycling pathway generates vesicles with a higher fusion efficacy during Ca2+-triggered release, compared to SVs recycled when Rab5 function was impaired. We therefore suggest a model in which the endosome serves as organelle to control the SV fusion efficacy and thereby the synaptic strength. Since changes in the synaptic strength are occuring during learning and memory processes, controlling endosomal SV recycling might be a new molecular mechanism involved in learning and memory.

Aluminium, antiperspirants and breast cancer

Aluminium salts are used as the active antiperspirant agent in underarm cosmetics, but the effects of widespread, long term and increasing use remain unknown, especially in relation to the breast, which is a local area of application. Clinical studies showing a disproportionately high incidence of breast cancer in the upper outer quadrant of the breast together with reports of genomic instability in outer quadrants of the breast provide supporting evidence for a role for locally applied cosmetic chemicals in the development of breast cancer. Aluminium is known to have a genotoxic profile, capable of causing both DNA alterations and epigenetic effects, and this would be consistent with a potential role in breast cancer if such effects occurred in breast cells. Oestrogen is a well established influence in breast cancer and its action, dependent on intracellular receptors which function as ligand-activated zinc finger transcription factors, suggests one possible point of interference from aluminium. Results reported here demonstrate that aluminium in the form of aluminium chloride or aluminium chlorhydrate can interfere with the function of oestrogen receptors of MCF7 human breast cancer cells both in terms of ligand binding and in terms of oestrogen-regulated reporter gene expression. This adds aluminium to the increasing list of metals capable of interfering with oestrogen action and termed metal I oestrogens. Further studies are now needed to identify the molecular basis of this action, the longer term effects of aluminium exposure and whether aluminium can cause aberrations to other signalling pathways in breast cells. Given the wide exposure of the human population to antiperspirants, it will be important to establish dermal absorption in the local area of the breast and whether long term low level absorption could play a role in the increasing incidence of breast cancer. (c) 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Protochordate Zic genes define primitive somite compartments and highlight molecular changes underlying neural crest evolution

The vertebrate Zic gene family encodes C2H2 zinc finger transcription factors closely related to the Gli proteins. Zic genes are expressed in multiple areas of developing vertebrate embryos, including the dorsal neural tube where they act as potent neural crest inducers. Here we describe the characterization of a Zic ortholog from the amphioxus Branchiostoma floridae and further describe the expression of a Zic ortholog from the ascidian Ciona intestinalis. Molecular phylogenetic analysis and sequence comparisons suggest the gene duplications that formed the vertebrate Zic family were specific to the vertebrate lineage. In Ciona maternal CiZic/Ci-macho1 transcripts are localized during cleavage stages by asymmetric cell division, whereas zygotic expression by neural plate cells commences during neurulation. The amphioxus Zic ortholog AmphiZic is expressed in dorsal mesoderm and ectoderm during gastrulation, before being eliminated first from midline cells and then from all neurectoderm during neurulation. After neurulation, expression is reactivated in the dorsal neural tube and dorsolateral somite. Comparison of CiZic and AmphiZic expression with vertebrate Zic expression leads to two main conclusions. First, Zic expression allows us to define homologous compartments between vertebrate and amphioxus somites, showing primitive subdivision of vertebrate segmented mesoderm. Second, we show that neural Zic expression is a chordate synapomorphy, whereas the precise pattern of neural expression has evolved differently on the different chordate lineages. Based on these observations we suggest that a change in Zic regulation, specifically the evolution of a dorsal neural expression domain in vertebrate neurulae, was an important step in the evolution of the neural crest.

Recurrent Deletion of ZNF630 at Xp11.23 Is Not Associated With Mental Retardation

ZNF630 is a member of the primate-specific Xp11 zinc finger gene cluster that consists of six closely related genes, of which ZNF41, ZNF81, and ZNF674 have been shown to be involved in mental retardation. This suggests that mutations of ZNF630 might influence cognitive function. Here, we detected 12 ZNF630 deletions in a total of 1,562 male patients with mental retardation from Brazil, USA, Australia, and Europe. The breakpoints were analyzed in 10 families, and in all cases they were located within two segmental duplications that share more than 99% sequence identity, indicating that the deletions resulted from non-allelic homologous recombination. In 2,121 healthy male controls, 10 ZNF630 deletions were identified. In total, there was a 1.6-fold higher frequency of this deletion in males with mental retardation as compared to controls, but this increase was not statistically significant (P-value = 0.174). Conversely, a 1.9-fold lower frequency of ZNF630 duplications was observed in patients, which was not significant either (P-value = 0.163). These data do not show that ZNF630 deletions or duplications are associated with mental retardation. (C) 2010 Wiley-Liss, Inc.