Virtual milgram : empathic concern or personal distress? Evidence from functional MRI and dispositional measures

One motive for behaving as the agent of another"s aggression appears to be anchored in as yet unelucidated mechanisms of obedience to authority. In a recent partial replication of Milgram"s obedience paradigm within an immersive virtual environment, participants administered pain to a female virtual human and observed her suffering. Whether the participants" response to the latter was more akin to other-oriented empathic concern for her well-being or to a self-oriented aversive state of personal distress in response to her distress is unclear. Using the stimuli from that study, this event-related fMRI-based study analysed brain activity during observation of the victim in pain versus not in pain. This contrast revealed activation in pre-defi ned brain areas known to be involved in affective processing but not in those commonly associated with affect sharing (e.g., ACC and insula). We then examined whether different dimensions of dispositional empathy predict activity within the same pre-defi ned brain regions: While personal distress and fantasy (i.e., tendency to transpose oneself into fi ctional situations and characters) predicted brain activity, empathic concern and perspective taking predicted no change in neuronal response associated with pain observation. These exploratory fi ndings suggest that there is a distinct pattern of brain activity associated with observing the pain-related behaviour of the victim within the context of this social dilemma, that this observation evoked a self-oriented aversive state of personal distress, and that the objective"reality" of pain is of secondary importance for this response. These fi ndings provide a starting point for experimentally more rigorous investigation of obedience.

Evidence for hypothalamic ketone body sensing: impact on food intake and peripheral metabolic responses in mice.

Monocarboxylates have been implicated in the control of energy homeostasis. Among them, the putative role of ketone bodies produced notably during high-fat diet (HFD) has not been thoroughly explored. In this study, we aimed to determine the impact of a specific rise in cerebral ketone bodies on food intake and energy homeostasis regulation. A carotid infusion of ketone bodies was performed on mice to stimulate sensitive brain areas for 6 or 12 h. At each time point, food intake and different markers of energy homeostasis were analyzed to reveal the consequences of cerebral increase in ketone body level detection. First, an increase in food intake appeared over a 12-h period of brain ketone body perfusion. This stimulated food intake was associated with an increased expression of the hypothalamic neuropeptides NPY and AgRP as well as phosphorylated AMPK and is due to ketone bodies sensed by the brain, as blood ketone body levels did not change at that time. In parallel, gluconeogenesis and insulin sensitivity were transiently altered. Indeed, a dysregulation of glucose production and insulin secretion was observed after 6 h of ketone body perfusion, which reversed to normal at 12 h of perfusion. Altogether, these results suggest that an increase in brain ketone body concentration leads to hyperphagia and a transient perturbation of peripheral metabolic homeostasis.

Theta EEG oscillatory activity and auditory change detection

The mismatch negativity is an electrophysiological marker of auditory change detection in the event-related brain potential and has been proposed to reflect an automatic comparison process between an incoming stimulus and the representation of prior items in a sequence. There is evidence for two main functional subcomponents comprising the MMN, generated by temporal and frontal brain areas, respectively. Using data obtained in an MMN paradigm, we performed time-frequency analysis to reveal the changes in oscillatory neural activity in the theta band. The results suggest that the frontal component of the MMN is brought about by an increase in theta power for the deviant trials and, possibly, by an additional contribution of theta phase alignment. By contrast, the temporal component of the MMN, best seen in recordings from mastoid electrodes, is generated by phase resetting of theta rhythm with no concomitant power modulation. Thus, frontal and temporal MMN components do not only differ with regard to their functional significance but also appear to be generated by distinct neurophysiological mechanisms.

Functional neuroanatomy of meaning acquisition from context

An important issue in language learning is how new words are integrated in the brain representations that sustain language processing. To identify the brain regions involved in meaning acquisition and word learning, we conducted a functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Young participants were required to deduce the meaning of a novel word presented within increasingly constrained sentence contexts that were read silently during the scanning session. Inconsistent contexts were also presented in which no meaning could be assigned to the novel word. Participants showed meaning acquisition in the consistent but not in the inconsistent condition. A distributed brain network was identified comprising the left anterior inferior frontal gyrus (BA 45), the middle temporal gyrus (BA 21), the parahippocampal gyrus, and several subcortical structures (the thalamus and the striatum). Drawing on previous neuroimaging evidence, we tentatively identify the roles of these brain areas in the retrieval, selection, and encoding of the meaning.

An fMRI Study of Emotional engagement in decicion-making

It has been suggested that decisionmaking depends on sensitive feelings associatedwith cognitive processing rather than cognitiveprocessing alone. From human lesions, we knowthe medial anterior inferior-ventral prefrontalcortex processes the sensitivity associated withcognitive processing, it being essentiallyresponsible for decision making.In this fMRI (functional Magnetic ResonanceImage) study 15 subjects were analyzed usingmoral dilemmas as probes to investigate the neuralbasis for painful-emotional sensitivity associatedwith decision making. We found that a networkcomprising the posterior and anterior cingulateand the medial anterior prefrontal cortex wassignificantly and specifically activated by painfulmoral dilemmas, but not by non-painful dilemmas.These findings provide new evidence that thecingulate and medial anterior prefrontal areinvolved in processing painful emotionalsensibility, in particular, when decision makingtakes place. We speculate that decision makinghas a cognitive component processed by cognitivebrain areas and a sensitivity component processedby emotional brain areas. The structures activatedsuggest that decision making depends on painfulemotional feeling processing rather than cognitiveprocessing when painful feeling processinghappens

Mild Cognitive Impairment and Early Detection of Alzheimer`s Disease. A Positron Emission Tomography Study

Alzheimer`s disease (AD) is characterised neuropathologically by the presence of extracellular amyloid plaques, intraneuronal neurofibrillary tangles, and cerebral neuronal loss. The pathological changes in AD are believed to start even decades before clinical symptoms are detectable. AD gradually affects episodic memory, cognition, behaviour and the ability to perform everyday activities. Mild cognitive impairment (MCI) represents a transitional state between normal aging and dementia disorders, especially AD. The predictive accuracy of the current and commonly used MCI criteria devide this disorder into amnestic (aMCI) and non-amnestic (naMCI) MCI. It seems that many individuals with aMCI tend to convert to AD. However many MCI individuals will remain stable and some may even recover. At present, the principal drugs for the treatment of AD provide only symptomatic and palliative benefits. Safe and effective mechanism-based therapies are needed for this devastating neurodegenerative disease of later life. In conjunction with the development of new therapeutic drugs, tools for early detection of AD would be important. In future one of the challenges will be to detect at an early stage these MCI individuals who will convert to AD. Methods which can predict which MCI subjects will convert to AD will be much more important if the new drug candidates prove to have disease-arresting or even disease–slowing effects. These types of drugs are likely to have the best efficacy if administered in the early or even in the presymptomatic phase of the disease when the synaptic and neuronal loss has not become too widespread. There is no clinical method to determine with certainly which MCI individuals will progress to AD. However there are several methods which have been suggested as predictors of conversion to AD, e.g. increased [11C] PIB uptake, hippocampal atrophy in MRI, low CSF A beta 42 level, high CSF tau-protein level, apolipoprotein E (APOE) ε4 allele and impairment in episodic memory and executive functions. In the present study subjects with MCI appear to have significantly higher [¹¹C] PIB uptake vs healthy elderly in several brain areas including frontal cortex, the posterior cingulate, the parietal and lateral temporal cortices, putamen and caudate. Also results from this PET study indicate that over time, MCI subjects who display increased [¹¹C] PIB uptake appear to be significantly more likely to convert to AD than MCI subjects with negative [¹¹C] PIB retention. Also hippocampal atrophy seems to increase in MCI individuals clearly during the conversion to AD. In this study [¹¹C] PIB uptake increases early and changes relatively little during the AD process whereas there is progressive hippocampal atrophy during the disease. In addition to increased [¹¹C] PIB retention and hippocampal atrophy, the status of APOE ε4 allele might contribute to the conversion from MCI to AD.

Frequent occurrence of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in GABAergic neurons of the chick visual system

Double-labeling immunohistochemical methods were used to investigate the occurrence of the alpha8 and alpha5 nicotinic receptor subunits in presumptive GABAergic neurons of the chick nervous system. Nicotinic receptor immunoreactivity was often found in cells exhibiting GABA-like immunoreactivity, especially in the visual system. The alpha8 subunit appeared to be present in presumptive GABAergic cells of the ventral lateral geniculate nucleus, nucleus of the basal optic root of the accessory optic system, and the optic tectum, among several other structures. The alpha5 subunit was also found in GABA-positive neurons, as observed in the lentiform nucleus of the mesencephalon and other pretectal nuclei. The numbers of alpha8- and alpha5-positive neurons that were also GABA-positive represented high percentages of the total number of neurons containing nicotinic receptor labeling in several brain areas, which indicates that most of the alpha8 and alpha5 nicotinic receptor subunits are present in GABAergic cells. Taken together with data from other studies, our results indicate an important role of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in the functional organization of GABAergic circuits in the visual system.

c-Fos expression induced by electroacupuncture at the Zusanli point in rats submitted to repeated immobilization

In laboratory animals, acupuncture needs to be performed on either anesthetized or, if unanesthetized, restrained subjects. Both procedures up-regulate c-Fos expression in several areas of the central nervous system, representing therefore a major pitfall for the assessment of c-Fos expression induced by electroacupuncture. Thus, in order to reduce the effect of acute restraint we used a protocol of repeated restraint for the assessment of the brain areas activated by electroacupuncture in adult male Wistar rats weighing 180-230 g. Repeated immobilization protocols (6 days, 1 h/day and 13 days, 2 h/day) were used to reduce the effect of acute immobilization stress on the c-Fos expression induced by electroacupuncture at the Zusanli point (EA36S). Animals submitted to immobilization alone or to electroacupuncture (100 Hz, 2-4 V, faradic wave) in a non-point region were compared to animals submitted to electroacupuncture at EA36S (4 animals/subgroup). c-Fos expression was measured in 41 brain areas by simple counting of cells and the results are reported as number of c-Fos-immunoreactive cells/10,000 µm². The protocols of repeated immobilization significantly reduced the immobilization-induced c-Fos expression in most of the brain areas analyzed (P < 0.05). Animals of the EA36S groups had significantly higher levels of c-Fos expression in the dorsal raphe nucleus, locus coeruleus, posterior hypothalamus and central medial nucleus of the thalamus. Furthermore, the repeated immobilization protocols intensified the differences between the effects of 36S and non-point stimulation in the dorsal raphe nucleus (P < 0.05). These data suggest that high levels of stress can interact with and mask the evaluation of specific effects of acupuncture in unanesthetized animals.

Assessment of the progressive nature of cell damage in the pilocarpine model of epilepsy

Pilocarpine-induced (320 mg/kg, ip) status epilepticus (SE) in adult (2-3 months) male Wistar rats results in extensive neuronal damage in limbic structures. Here we investigated whether the induction of a second SE (N = 6) would generate damage and cell loss similar to that seen after a first SE (N = 9). Counts of silver-stained (indicative of cell damage) cells, using the Gallyas argyrophil III method, revealed a markedly lower neuronal injury in animals submitted to re-induction of SE compared to rats exposed to a single episode of pilocarpine-induced SE. This effect could be explained as follows: 1) the first SE removes the vulnerable cells, leaving behind resistant cells that are not affected by the second SE; 2) the first SE confers increased resistance to the remaining cells, analogous to the process of ischemic tolerance. Counting of Nissl-stained cells was performed to differentiate between these alternative mechanisms. Our data indicate that different neuronal populations react differently to SE induction. For some brain areas most, if not all, of the vulnerable cells are lost after an initial insult leaving only relatively resistant cells and little space for further damage or cell loss. For some other brain areas, in contrast, our data support the hypothesis that surviving cells might be modified by the initial insult which would confer a sort of excitotoxic tolerance. As a consequence of both mechanisms, subsequent insults after an initial insult result in very little damage regardless of their intensity.

Stress-induced neuroinflammation: mechanisms and new pharmacological targets

Stress is triggered by numerous unexpected environmental, social or pathological stimuli occurring during the life of animals, including humans, which determine changes in all of their systems. Although acute stress is essential for survival, chronic, long-lasting stress can be detrimental. In this review, we present data supporting the hypothesis that stress-related events are characterized by modifications of oxidative/nitrosative pathways in the brain in response to the activation of inflammatory mediators. Recent findings indicate a key role for nitric oxide (NO) and an excess of pro-oxidants in various brain areas as responsible for both neuronal functional impairment and structural damage. Similarly, cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), another known source of oxidants, may account for stress-induced brain damage. Interestingly, some of the COX-2-derived mediators, such as the prostaglandin 15d-PGJ2 and its peroxisome proliferator-activated nuclear receptor PPARγ, are activated in the brain in response to stress, constituting a possible endogenous anti-inflammatory mechanism of defense against excessive inflammation. The stress-induced activation of both biochemical pathways depends on the activation of the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) glutamate receptor and on the activation of the transcription factor nuclear factor kappa B (NFκB). In the case of inducible NO synthase (iNOS), release of the cytokine TNF-α also accounts for its expression. Different pharmacological strategies directed towards different sites in iNOS or COX-2 pathways have been shown to be neuroprotective in stress-induced brain damage: NMDA receptor blockers, inhibitors of TNF-α activation and release, inhibitors of NFκB, specific inhibitors of iNOS and COX-2 activities and PPARγ agonists. This article reviews recent contributions to this area addressing possible new pharmacological targets for the treatment of stress-induced neuropsychiatric disorders.

Influence of progesterone on GAD65 and GAD67 mRNA expression in the dorsolateral striatum and prefrontal cortex of female rats repeatedly treated with cocaine

Female rats are intensely affected by cocaine, with estrogen probably playing an important role in this effect. Progesterone modulates the GABA system and attenuates the effects of cocaine; however, there is no information about its relevance in changing GABA synthesis pathways after cocaine administration to female rats. Our objective was to investigate the influence of progesterone on the effects of repeated cocaine administration on the isoenzymes of glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD65 and GAD67) mRNA in brain areas involved in the addiction circuitry. Ovariectomized, intact and progesterone replacement-treated female rats received saline or cocaine (30 mg/kg, ip) acutely or repeatedly. GAD isoenzyme mRNA levels were determined in the dorsolateral striatum (dSTR) and prefrontal cortex (PFC) by RT-PCR, showing that repeated, but not acute, cocaine decreased GADs/β-actin mRNA ratio in the dSTR irrespective of the hormonal condition (GAD65: P < 0.001; and GAD67: P = 0.004). In the PFC, repeated cocaine decreased GAD65 and increased GAD67 mRNA ratio (P < 0.05). Progesterone replacement decreased both GAD isoenzymes mRNA ratio after acute cocaine in the PFC (P < 0.001) and repeated cocaine treatment reversed this decrease (P < 0.001). These results suggest that cocaine does not immediately affect GAD mRNA expression, while repeated cocaine decreases both GAD65 and GAD67 mRNA in the dSTR of female rats, independently of their hormonal conditions. In the PFC, repeated cocaine increases the expression of GAD isoenzymes, which were decreased due to progesterone replacement.

Electrocortical indices of cognitive control in working memory : exploring the effects of proactive interference, cognitive load, and aging

Cognitive control involves the ability to flexibly adjust cognitive processing in order to resist interference and promote goal-directed behaviour. Although frontal cortex is considered to be broadly involved in cognitive control, the mechanisms by which frontal brain areas implement control functions are unclear. Furthermore, aging is associated with reductions in the ability to implement control functions and questions remain as to whether unique cortical responses serve a compensatory role in maintaining maximal performance in later years. Described here are three studies in which electrophysiological data were recorded while participants performed modified versions of the standard Sternberg task. The goal was to determine how top-down control is implemented in younger adults and altered in aging. In study I, the effects of frequent stimulus repetition on the interference-related N450 were investigated in a Sternberg task with a small stimulus set (requiring extensive stimulus resampling) and a task with a large stimulus set (requiring no stimulus resampling).The data indicated that constant stimulus res amp ling required by employing small stimulus sets can undercut the effect of proactive interference on the N450. In study 2, younger and older adults were tested in a standard version of the Sternberg task to determine whether the unique frontal positivity, previously shown to predict memory impairment in older adults during a proactive interference task, would be associated with the improved performance when memory recognition could be aided by unambiguous stimulus familiarity. Here, results indicated that the frontal positivity was associated with poorer memory performance, replicating the effect observed in a more cognitively demanding task, and showing that stimulus familiarity does not mediate compensatory cortical activations in older adults. Although the frontal positivity could be interpreted to reflect maladaptive cortical activation, it may also reflect attempts at compensation that fail to fully ameliorate agerelated decline. Furthermore, the frontal positivity may be the result of older adults' reliance on late occurring, controlled processing in contrast to younger adults' ability to identify stimuli at very early stages of processing. In the final study, working memory load was manipulated in the proactive interference Sternberg task in order to investigate whether the N450 reflects simple interference detection, with little need for cognitive resources, or an active conflict resolution mechanism that requires executive resources to implement. Independent component analysis was used to isolate the effect of interference revealing that the canonical N450 was based on two dissociable cognitive control mechanisms: a left frontal negativity that reflects active interference resolution, , but requires executive resources to implement, and a right frontal negativity that reflects global response inhibition that can be relied on when executive resources are minimal but at the cost of a slowed response. Collectively, these studies advance understanding of the factors that influence younger and older adults' ability to satisfy goal-directed behavioural requirements in the face of interference and the effects of age-related cognitive decline.

The neurobiology of meditation for the control of pain

La douleur est une expérience multidimensionnelle comportant des aspects sensoriels, émotionnels et cognitifs. Il a été montré que cette expérience peut être modulée par des facteurs psychologiques ou des interventions cognitives comme l’attention, la distraction, l’hypnose ou les attentes. La tradition orientale suggère également que la pratique de la méditation pourrait avoir des effets analgésiques. D’un point de vue théorique, plusieurs mécanismes pourraient expliquer ces effets. Cependant, très peu d’études ont testé ces hypothèses. Les études présentées dans cette thèse avaient donc pour objectif d’examiner les mécanismes analgésiques de la méditation. Dans un premier temps, une étude psychophysique a été réalisée afin de comparer les réponses à la douleur entre des adeptes de la méditation Zen et des sujets contrôles, dans différentes conditions attentionnelles. Durant la condition attentionnelle de type « mindful », les adeptes de la méditation ont présenté une plus faible sensibilité à la douleur, des réponses attentionnelles à la douleur atypiques et une diminution de la perception de la douleur associée à l’entraînement à la méditation. Une deuxième étude a été réalisée en imagerie par résonance magnétique fonctionnelle (IRMf) avec des groupes de participants similaires. Dans une condition sans méditation, les adeptes de la méditation ont présenté de plus fortes réponses nociceptives dans les régions primaires de la douleur. Les régions cérébrales associées aux processus d’évaluation, à la mémoire et aux émotions ont quant à elles montré une diminution d’activité. De plus, cette diminution était plus importante chez les adeptes de la méditation les plus expérimentés et elle était associée à des évaluations de douleur plus faibles. Par ailleurs, des changements de connectivité fonctionnelle entre le cortex préfrontal et une région primaires de la douleur étaient associés à la sensibilité à la douleur chez les adeptes de la méditation. Finalement, une étude d’imagerie cérébrale structurale (publiée comme deux études séparées) a été réalisée pour examiner les différences d’épaisseur corticale entre les groupes, pour des régions associées à la douleur. Les adeptes de la méditation ont présenté une épaisseur plus importante de matière grise dans plusieurs régions associées à la douleur et l’attention. De plus, ces différences étaient associées à une mesure expérientielle de l’attention, à la sensibilité à la douleur et à l’expérience de méditation. Dans l’ensemble, ces résultats suggèrent que la méditation pourrait influencer la perception de la douleur par des changements fonctionnels et physiques dans le cerveau. De plus, le patron d’activation et la modulation de l’expérience paraissent uniques en comparaison à ceux d’autres interventions, ce qui suggère qu’un état de détachement et un focus mental favorisent la dissociation entre les aspects désagréables et sensoriels d’un stimulus nociceptif.

Effect of mindfulness meditation on the neural substrates of emotion processing and resting state in experienced and beginner meditators

La méditation par le ‘mindfulness’ favorise la stabilité émotionelle, mais les mécanismes neuroneux qui sous-tendent ces effets sont peu connus. Ce projet investiga l’effet du ‘mindfulness’ sur les réponses cérébrales et subjectives à des images négatives, positives et neutres chez des méditants expérimentés et des débutants au moyen de l’imagerie par résonance magnétique fonctionnelle (IRMf). Le ‘mindfulness’ atténua l’intensité émotionelle via différents mécanismes cérébraux pour chaque groupe. Comparés aux méditants, les débutants manifestèrent une déactivation de l’amygdale en réponse aux stimuli émotifs durant le ‘mindfulness’. Comparés aux débutants, les méditants exhibèrent une déactivation de régions du réseau du mode par défaut (RMD) pendant le ‘mindfulness’ pour tous stimuli (cortex médian préfrontal [CMP], cortex cingulaire postérieur [CCP]). Le RMD est constitué de régions fonctionnellement connectées, activées au repos et déactivées lors de tâches explicites. Cependant, nous ne connaissons pas les impacts de l’entraînement par la méditation sur la connectivité entre régions du RMD et si ces effets persistent au-delà d’un état méditatif. La connectivité fonctionnelle entre régions du RMD chez les méditants et débutants au repos fut investiguée au moyen de l’IRMf. Comparés aux débutants, les méditants montrèrent une connectivité affaiblie entre subdivisions du CMP, et une connectivité accrue entre le lobule pariétal inférieur et trois regions du RMD. Ces résultats reflètent que les bienfaits immédiats du ‘mindfulness’ sur la psychopathologie pourraient être dûs à une déactivation de régions limbiques impliquées dans la réactivité émotionelle. De plus, les bienfaits à long-terme de la méditation sur la stabilité émotionelle pourrait être dûs à une déactivation de régions corticales et cingulaires impliquées dans l’évaluation de la signification émotive et une connectivité altérée entre régions du RMD à l’état de repos.

Activité cérébrale reliée à la rétention des sons en mémoire à court-terme auditive

Une variété d’opérations cognitives dépend de la capacité de retenir de l’information auditive pour une courte période de temps. Notamment l’information auditive prend son sens avec le temps; la rétention d’un son disparu permet donc de mieux comprendre sa signification dans le contexte auditif et mène ultimement à une interaction réussite avec l’environnement. L’objectif de cette thèse était d’étudier l’activité cérébrale reliée à la rétention des sons et, ce faisant, parvenir à une meilleure compréhension des mécanismes de bas niveau de la mémoire à court-terme auditive. Trois études empiriques se sont penchées sur différents aspects de la rétention des sons. Le premier article avait pour but d’étudier les corrélats électrophysiologiques de la rétention des sons variant en timbre en utilisant la technique des potentiels reliés aux événements. Une composante fronto-centrale variant avec la charge mnésique a été ainsi révélée. Dans le deuxième article, le patron électro-oscillatoire de la rétention a été exploré. Cette étude a dévoilé une augmentation de l’amplitude variant avec la charge mnésique dans la bande alpha pendant la rétention des sons ainsi qu’une dissociation entre l’activité oscillatoire observée pendant la rétention et celle observée pendant la présentation des sons test. En démontrant des différentes modulations des amplitudes dans la bande alpha et la bande beta, cette étude a pu révéler des processus distincts mais interdépendants de la mémoire à court-terme auditive. Le troisième article a davantage visé à mieux connaître les structures cérébrales soutenant la rétention de sons. L’activité cérébrale a été mesurée avec la magnétoencéphalographie, et des localisations des sources ont été effectuées à partir de ces données. Les résultats ont dévoilé l’implication d’un réseau cérébral contenant des structures temporales, frontales, et pariétales qui était plus important dans l’hémisphère droit que dans l’hémisphère gauche. Les résultats des études empiriques ont permis de souligner l’aspect sensoriel de la mémoire à court-terme auditive et de montrer des similarités dans la rétention de différentes caractéristiques tonales. Dans leur ensemble, les études ont contribué à l’identification des processus neuronaux reliés à la rétention des sons en étudiant l’activité électromagnétique et l’implication des structures cérébrales correspondantes sur une échelle temporelle fine.