Desenvolvimento de um Range Extender para Veículo Elétrico

Dissertação de mestrado integrado em Engenharia Eletrónica Industrial e de Computadores

Incorporation of hybrid phase change materials in plastering mortars for increased energy efficiency in buildings

Tese de Doutoramento em Engenharia Civil.

Métabolisme énergétique de la femme enceinte [Energy metabolism in the pregnant woman].

The maternal and foetal anabolic phase characterizing pregnancy requires energy storage and hence a state of positive energy balance. Dietary surveys, however, have shown an increase in energy intake during pregnancy of small magnitude only. Furthermore, indirect calorimetry measurements indicate an elevation of basal or resting energy expenditure (EE), particularly during the 3rd trimester of pregnancy. These results are confirmed by measurements performed in a respiration chamber which showed that the rate of 24 hours EE of pregnant women is significantly more elevated in the 3rd trimester than in the nonpregnant state; the latter is explained by a rise of basal EE and to a smaller extent by an increase in energy cost of moving around as a result of the greater body weight. In contrast, when the results are expressed per unit body weight, the difference in 24 hours EE observed during pregnancy disappeared. It seems that energy sparing mechanisms-which are still largely unknown-may come into play during this period: postprandial thermogenesis appears to be blunted during pregnancy. This indicates an increase in net efficiency of food energy utilization. The degree of adaptation of physical activity-which has not been previously investigated-remains a research topic of great interest for the future.

Energy gap in the aetiology of body weight gain and obesity: a challenging concept with a complex evaluation and pitfalls.

The concept of energy gap(s) is useful for understanding the consequence of a small daily, weekly, or monthly positive energy balance and the inconspicuous shift in weight gain ultimately leading to overweight and obesity. Energy gap is a dynamic concept: an initial positive energy gap incurred via an increase in energy intake (or a decrease in physical activity) is not constant, may fade out with time if the initial conditions are maintained, and depends on the 'efficiency' with which the readjustment of the energy imbalance gap occurs with time. The metabolic response to an energy imbalance gap and the magnitude of the energy gap(s) can be estimated by at least two methods, i.e. i) assessment by longitudinal overfeeding studies, imposing (by design) an initial positive energy imbalance gap; ii) retrospective assessment based on epidemiological surveys, whereby the accumulated endogenous energy storage per unit of time is calculated from the change in body weight and body composition. In order to illustrate the difficulty of accurately assessing an energy gap we have used, as an illustrative example, a recent epidemiological study which tracked changes in total energy intake (estimated by gross food availability) and body weight over 3 decades in the US, combined with total energy expenditure prediction from body weight using doubly labelled water data. At the population level, the study attempted to assess the cause of the energy gap purported to be entirely due to increased food intake. Based on an estimate of change in energy intake judged to be more reliable (i.e. in the same study population) and together with calculations of simple energetic indices, our analysis suggests that conclusions about the fundamental causes of obesity development in a population (excess intake vs. low physical activity or both) is clouded by a high level of uncertainty.

Compact thermal storage: a-state-of-the-art review of experimental results

Thermal energy storage (TES) can increase the thermal energy effieresa, of a process by reusing the waste heat from industrial process, solar energy or other sources. There are different ways to store thermal energy: by sensible heat, by latest heat, by sorption process or by chemical reaction. This thesrs provides a-state-of-the-art review of the experimental performance of TES systems based on solid gas sorption process and chemical reactions. The importance of theses processes is that provides a heat loss free storage system with a high energy density.

Pilhas alcalinas: um dispositivo útil para o ensino de Química

This paper presents the alkaline battery (MnO2/Zn) as a useful device in the teaching of chemistry. The preparation of the battery, the materials used in the preparation of the MnO2 electrode, the mechanism of energy storage and the parameters often used in the understanding of general batteries are discussed in detail. In addition, a schedule and a questionnaire that can be applied in an experimental class have been developed, which allow the assembly of an alkaline battery, its discharge using a galvanostatic or a load-resistance procedure, and the elaboration of a report based on the main text. This experimental class has been offered in the chemistry course of FFCLRP.

Akkujen ja superkondensaattorien yhteiskäyttö energiavarastoina ja niiden verkkoon liittäminen ajoneuvoissa

Ajoneuvojen tiukentuneet päästörajoitukset, sekä ajoneuvojen kokonaishyötysuhteen parantamisen tarve ohjaavat ajoneuvovalmistajia kehittämään uusia ratkaisuja. Energiavarastojen käyttö ajoneuvoissa on yleistynyt ja niiden käytöllä voidaan saada huomattava energiasäästö. Tässä kandidaatintyössä on esitelty erilaisia energiavarastoja ja niiden verkkoon liittämistä. Pääpaino työssä on akkujen ja superkondensaattorien rinnankytkennässä. Energiavarastot pyritään kytkemään mahdollisimman vähällä tehoelektroniikalla verkkoon. Esimerkkitapaukseksi on otettu litium-ioni akkujen ja superkondensaattorien rinnankytkentä vaihtojännitteeseen pelkällä invertterillä.

Energiavarastojen mitoitus laivasähköjärjestelmään

Jatkuvasti kiristyvät päästörajoitukset ajavat eri alojen energiatuottajia kehittämään uusia ratkaisuja päästöjen pienentämiseksi. Viime aikoina myös laivojen päästörajoituksia on tiukennettu ja tulevaisuudessa niitä tullaan tiukentamaan lisää. Nämä tiukentuvat päästörajoitukset asettavat myös laivan dieselmoottoreiden valmistajat uusien haasteiden eteen. Yhtenä vaihtoehtona on lisätä dieselmoottorin rinnalle energiavarasto, joka vähentää dieselmoottorin päästöjä varsinkin nopeissa kuormituksen muutoksissa. Tässä diplomityössä tarkastellaan sähköisten energiavarastojen mitoitusta laivan sähköjärjestelmään. Energiavarastot mitoitetaan useaan eri toimintatilanteeseen. Mitoituksen lisäksi pohditaan energiavarastoilla saatavaa mahdollista rahallista hyötyä sekä päästöjen vähenemistä.

Sähköauto osana älykästä sähköverkkoa – Ohjaus ja toiminnallisuudet

Tulevaisuudessa sähköverkko kohtaa monia haasteita, kun sähköautot yleistyvät, vaatien suuren tehotarpeen. Uusiutuvan energiantuotannon epävarma huipputehon tuotanto ei välttämättä pysty kattamaan sähköautoista johtuvaa suurta tehopiikkiä, jos suuret määrät ajoneuvoista kytketään yhtä aikaa lataukseen. Jos sähköajoneuvot voidaan ladata ohjatusti, ei välttämättä tarvita lisäenergian tuotantoa kattamaan kasvanutta huipputehon tarvetta. Lisäksi sähköajoneuvojen akut toimivat koko sähköverkolle energiavarastoina, jollaista ei ole ennen ollut. Älykkäällä sähköverkolla voidaan ohjata sähköajoneuvon latausta, mikäli ajoneuvossa on ohjausjärjestelmä ja akkujen varaustilan mittaus. Tässä kandidaatin työssä ohjelmoidaan mittaus- ja ohjauskortti plug-in hybridiautoa varten, jossa on V2G-ominaisuus. Ohjainkortista toteutetaan toimintakuvaus, jonka mukaan se myös ohjelmoidaan. Ohjainkortti mittaa akkujen jännitettä ja virtaa, joista voidaan määrittää akkujen varaustilat. Ohjainkortti lähettää tiedot eteenpäin PC:lle, jolta ohjainkortti saa käskyn toimintatilasta. Mittaustietojen perusteella voidaan seurata mahdollisia vikatilanteita. Kandidaatintyön aikana ohjainkorttia ei ehditty asentamaan ajoneuvoon, mutta laboratoriotestien mukaan voidaan todeta, että ohjainkortti on ohjelmallisesti toimiva. Mittauksissa selvisi, että ohjainkortin mittaustulot eivät olleet tarpeeksi tarkkoja käyttökohteeseen. Todettiin, että ohjainkortti vaatii rakenteellisia muutoksia mittaustuloksien parantamista varten, ennen ohjainkortin käyttöönottoa, mutta kandidaatintyön tavoitteet saavutettiin.

Energy Efficiency of a Diesel-Electric MobileWorking Machine

The power demand of many mobile working machines such as mine loaders, straddle carriers and harvesters varies significantly during operation, and typically, the average power demand of a working machine is considerably lower than the demand for maximum power. Consequently, for most of the time, the diesel engine of a working machine operates at a poor efficiency far from its optimum efficiency range. However, the energy efficiency of dieseldriven working machines can be improved by electric hybridization. This way, the diesel engine can be dimensioned to operate within its optimum efficiency range, and the electric drive with its energy storages responds to changes in machine loading. A hybrid working machine can be implemented in many ways either as a parallel hybrid, a series hybrid or a combination of these two. The energy efficiency of hybrid working machines can be further enhanced by energy recovery and reuse. This doctoral thesis introduces the component models required in the simulation model of a working machine. Component efficiency maps are applied to the modelling; the efficiency maps for electrical machines are determined analytically in the whole torque–rotational speed plane based on the electricalmachine parameters. Furthermore, the thesis provides simulation models for parallel, series and parallel-series hybrid working machines. With these simulation models, the energy consumption of the working machine can be analysed. In addition, the hybridization process is introduced and described. The thesis provides a case example of the hybridization and dimensioning process of a working machine, starting from the work cycle of the machine. The selection and dimensioning of the hybrid system have a significant impact on the energy consumption of a hybrid working machine. The thesis compares the energy consumption of a working machine implemented by three different hybrid systems (parallel, series and parallel-series) and with different component dimensions. The payback time of a hybrid working machine and the energy storage lifetime are also estimated in the study.

Review of water electrolysis technologies and design of renewable hydrogen production systems

An electric system based on renewable energy faces challenges concerning the storage and utilization of energy due to the intermittent and seasonal nature of renewable energy sources. Wind and solar photovoltaic power productions are variable and difficult to predict, and thus electricity storage will be needed in the case of basic power production. Hydrogen’s energetic potential lies in its ability and versatility to store chemical energy, to serve as an energy carrier and as feedstock for various industries. Hydrogen is also used e.g. in the production of biofuels. The amount of energy produced during hydrogen combustion is higher than any other fuel’s on a mass basis with a higher-heating-value of 39.4 kWh/kg. However, even though hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe, on Earth most hydrogen exists in molecular forms such as water. Therefore, hydrogen must be produced and there are various methods to do so. Today, the majority hydrogen comes from fossil fuels, mainly from steam methane reforming, and only about 4 % of global hydrogen comes from water electrolysis. Combination of electrolytic production of hydrogen from water and supply of renewable energy is attracting more interest due to the sustainability and the increased flexibility of the resulting energy system. The preferred option for intermittent hydrogen storage is pressurization in tanks since at ambient conditions the volumetric energy density of hydrogen is low, and pressurized tanks are efficient and affordable when the cycling rate is high. Pressurized hydrogen enables energy storage in larger capacities compared to battery technologies and additionally the energy can be stored for longer periods of time, on a time scale of months. In this thesis, the thermodynamics and electrochemistry associated with water electrolysis are described. The main water electrolysis technologies are presented with state-of-the-art specifications. Finally, a Power-to-Hydrogen infrastructure design for Lappeenranta University of Technology is presented. Laboratory setup for water electrolysis is specified and factors affecting its commissioning in Finland are presented.

Early detection of metabolic and energy disorders by thermal time series stochastic complexity analysis

Maintenance of thermal homeostasis in rats fed a high-fat diet (HFD) is associated with changes in their thermal balance. The thermodynamic relationship between heat dissipation and energy storage is altered by the ingestion of high-energy diet content. Observation of thermal registers of core temperature behavior, in humans and rodents, permits identification of some characteristics of time series, such as autoreference and stationarity that fit adequately to a stochastic analysis. To identify this change, we used, for the first time, a stochastic autoregressive model, the concepts of which match those associated with physiological systems involved and applied in male HFD rats compared with their appropriate standard food intake age-matched male controls (n=7 per group). By analyzing a recorded temperature time series, we were able to identify when thermal homeostasis would be affected by a new diet. The autoregressive time series model (AR model) was used to predict the occurrence of thermal homeostasis, and this model proved to be very effective in distinguishing such a physiological disorder. Thus, we infer from the results of our study that maximum entropy distribution as a means for stochastic characterization of temperature time series registers may be established as an important and early tool to aid in the diagnosis and prevention of metabolic diseases due to their ability to detect small variations in thermal profile.

Carbon sources for Power-to-Gas applications in the Finnish energy system

This thesis is done as a part of the NEOCARBON project. The aim of NEOCARBON project is to study a fully renewable energy system utilizing Power-to-Gas or Power-to-Liquid technology for energy storage. Power-to-Gas consists of two main operations: Hydrogen production via electrolysis and methane production via methanation. Methanation requires carbon dioxide and hydrogen as a raw material. This thesis studies the potential carbon dioxide sources within Finland. The different sources are ranked using the cost and energy penalty of the carbon capture, carbon biogenity and compatibility with Power-to-Gas. It can be concluded that in Finland there exists enough CO2 point sources to provide national PtG system with sufficient amounts of carbon. Pulp and paper industry is single largest producer of biogenic CO2 in Finland. It is possible to obtain single unit capable of grid balancing operations and energy transformations via Power-to-Gas and Gas-to-Power by coupling biogas plants with biomethanation and CHP units.

Akkuvarastot omakotitaloissa

Energian varastointi on noussut keskeiseksi energia-alan teemaksi viime vuosina. Erityi-sesti uusiutuvan tuotannon lisääntyminen ja energian käytön tehostaminen ovat edesautta-neet energiavarastoratkaisuiden mukaantuloa. Työssä tarkastellaan litiumrautafosfaattiak-kujen käytön kannattavuutta omakotitaloissa. Tavoitteena on selvittää, millä reunaehdoilla näiden akkujen käyttö energiavarastoina tulee kannattavaksi Lappeenrannan olosuhteissa. Kannattavuutta selvitetään litiumrautafosfaattiakkujen markkina-analyysin ja teknistalou-dellisen analyysin sekä Matlab-simulaation avulla.

Hardware design of a multiconverter for hybrid vehicle applications

Hybridiajoneuvosovellukset vaativat usein sekä korkea- että matalajännitejärjestelmän. Korkeajännitejärjestelmä sisältää yleensä energiavaraston, joka on joko superkondansaattori tai korkeajänniteakusto, dieselgeneraattorin tai range extenderin ja ajokäytön. Korkeajännitejärjestelmään liitetään usein myös erilaisia apukäyttöjä kuten kompressoreita ja hydraulipumppuja. Matalajännitejärjelmä koostuu yleensä ohjausyksiköistä, ajovaloista, yms. laitteista. Perinteisesti matalajännitejärjestelmää on syötetty dieselmoottorin laturista, mutta korkeajännitejärjestelmien myötä DC/DC-hakkurin käyttäminen korkea- ja matalajännitejärjestelmien välillä on herättänyt kiinnostusta, koska tällöin laturin voisi poistaa ja matalajänniteakustoa pienentää. Tässä työssä kuvatun monilähöisen tehonmuokkaimen invertterisilta soveltuu apukäyttöjen ajamiseen, ja erotettu DC/DC-hakkuri matalajännitejärjestelmän syöttämiseen. Tässä työssä käydään läpi edellä mainitun tehonmuokkaimen suunnittelu, keskittyen eritoten laitteen korkeajänniteosien mitoitukseen ja termiseen suunniteluun. DC/DC-hakkurin osalta perinteisiä piistä valmistettuja IGBT transistoreja vertaillaan piikarbidi MOSFET transistoreihin. Lämpömallilaskujen paikkaansapitävyyttä tutkitaan suorittamalla prototyyppilaitteelle hyötysuhdemittaus, jonka tuloksia verrataan laskettuihin tuloksiin. Lämpömallin parannusmahdollisuuksia käsitellään myös hyötysuhdemittauksen tulosten perusteella.