Experience-based Auditory Predictions Modulate Brain Activity to Silence as Do Real Sounds.

Interactions between stimuli's acoustic features and experience-based internal models of the environment enable listeners to compensate for the disruptions in auditory streams that are regularly encountered in noisy environments. However, whether auditory gaps are filled in predictively or restored a posteriori remains unclear. The current lack of positive statistical evidence that internal models can actually shape brain activity as would real sounds precludes accepting predictive accounts of filling-in phenomenon. We investigated the neurophysiological effects of internal models by testing whether single-trial electrophysiological responses to omitted sounds in a rule-based sequence of tones with varying pitch could be decoded from the responses to real sounds and by analyzing the ERPs to the omissions with data-driven electrical neuroimaging methods. The decoding of the brain responses to different expected, but omitted, tones in both passive and active listening conditions was above chance based on the responses to the real sound in active listening conditions. Topographic ERP analyses and electrical source estimations revealed that, in the absence of any stimulation, experience-based internal models elicit an electrophysiological activity different from noise and that the temporal dynamics of this activity depend on attention. We further found that the expected change in pitch direction of omitted tones modulated the activity of left posterior temporal areas 140-200 msec after the onset of omissions. Collectively, our results indicate that, even in the absence of any stimulation, internal models modulate brain activity as do real sounds, indicating that auditory filling in can be accounted for by predictive activity.

Intrahemispheric cortico-cortical connections of the human auditory cortex.

The human auditory cortex comprises the supratemporal plane and large parts of the temporal and parietal convexities. We have investigated the relevant intrahemispheric cortico-cortical connections using in vivo DSI tractography combined with landmark-based registration, automatic cortical parcellation and whole-brain structural connection matrices in 20 right-handed male subjects. On the supratemporal plane, the pattern of connectivity was related to the architectonically defined early-stage auditory areas. It revealed a three-tier architecture characterized by a cascade of connections from the primary auditory cortex to six adjacent non-primary areas and from there to the superior temporal gyrus. Graph theory-driven analysis confirmed the cascade-like connectivity pattern and demonstrated a strong degree of segregation and hierarchy within early-stage auditory areas. Putative higher-order areas on the temporal and parietal convexities had more widely spread local connectivity and long-range connections with the prefrontal cortex; analysis of optimal community structure revealed five distinct modules in each hemisphere. The pattern of temporo-parieto-frontal connectivity was partially asymmetrical. In conclusion, the human early-stage auditory cortical connectivity, as revealed by in vivo DSI tractography, has strong similarities with that of non-human primates. The modular architecture and hemispheric asymmetry in higher-order regions is compatible with segregated processing streams and lateralization of cognitive functions.

Electrostimulation mapping of comprehension of auditory and visual words.

In order to spare functional areas during the removal of brain tumours, electrical stimulation mapping was used in 90 patients (77 in the left hemisphere and 13 in the right; 2754 cortical sites tested). Language functions were studied with a special focus on comprehension of auditory and visual words and the semantic system. In addition to naming, patients were asked to perform pointing tasks from auditory and visual stimuli (using sets of 4 different images controlled for familiarity), and also auditory object (sound recognition) and Token test tasks. Ninety-two auditory comprehension interference sites were observed. We found that the process of auditory comprehension involved a few, fine-grained, sub-centimetre cortical territories. Early stages of speech comprehension seem to relate to two posterior regions in the left superior temporal gyrus. Downstream lexical-semantic speech processing and sound analysis involved 2 pathways, along the anterior part of the left superior temporal gyrus, and posteriorly around the supramarginal and middle temporal gyri. Electrostimulation experimentally dissociated perceptual consciousness attached to speech comprehension. The initial word discrimination process can be considered as an "automatic" stage, the attention feedback not being impaired by stimulation as would be the case at the lexical-semantic stage. Multimodal organization of the superior temporal gyrus was also detected since some neurones could be involved in comprehension of visual material and naming. These findings demonstrate a fine graded, sub-centimetre, cortical representation of speech comprehension processing mainly in the left superior temporal gyrus and are in line with those described in dual stream models of language comprehension processing.

Resultate und ausser- gewöhnliche Komplikationen der Chirurgie der Gehörgangexostosen [Results and extraordinary complications of surgery for exostoses of the external auditory canal].

We present a retrospective study on 22 operations of exostosis of the external auditory canal in 20 patients. 8 patients were passionated by water sports. The most frequent indication for surgery (13 operations) was recurrent external otitis or ceruminal obstruction. In 7 cases the need for a wider access to the middle ear indicated surgery. Surgery was usually performed as an outpatient procedure, maximum hospitalization was 3 days. The mean healing period was 6 (3-10) weeks. Mean follow up was 43 (3-110) months. There were no severe intraoperative complications such as facial paresis, lesions of the ossicles or of the inner ear. As intraoperative complications we found 2 perforations of the tympanic membrane, 2 expositions of the capsule of the mandibular joint, one of which was followed by chronic pain. As postoperative complications we found an early soft tissue stenosis of the external auditory canal and one late soft tissue stenosis which recurred after revision surgery. No recurrence of exostosis was seen. We describe an up to now unknown complication: the appearance of bilateral petrositis caused by staphylococcus epidermidis after bilateral surgery in an otherwise healthy patient. This study confirms that severe complications are rare, minor ones however relatively common. And that also minor complications may have a troublesome follow. Therefore and because of the potential of severe complications indication for surgery must be made cautiously and risks of the operation must not be underestimated.

Theta EEG oscillatory activity and auditory change detection

The mismatch negativity is an electrophysiological marker of auditory change detection in the event-related brain potential and has been proposed to reflect an automatic comparison process between an incoming stimulus and the representation of prior items in a sequence. There is evidence for two main functional subcomponents comprising the MMN, generated by temporal and frontal brain areas, respectively. Using data obtained in an MMN paradigm, we performed time-frequency analysis to reveal the changes in oscillatory neural activity in the theta band. The results suggest that the frontal component of the MMN is brought about by an increase in theta power for the deviant trials and, possibly, by an additional contribution of theta phase alignment. By contrast, the temporal component of the MMN, best seen in recordings from mastoid electrodes, is generated by phase resetting of theta rhythm with no concomitant power modulation. Thus, frontal and temporal MMN components do not only differ with regard to their functional significance but also appear to be generated by distinct neurophysiological mechanisms.

Secure logarithmic audio watermarking scheme based on the human auditory system

Peer-reviewed

Bowing the violin : a case study for auditory-motor pattern modelling in the context of music performance

This project addresses methodological and technological challenges in the development of multi-modal data acquisition and analysis methods for the representation of instrumental playing technique in music performance through auditory-motor patterning models. The case study is violin playing: a multi-modal database of violin performances has been constructed by recording different musicians while playing short exercises on different violins. The exercise set and recording protocol have been designed to sample the space defined by dynamics (from piano to forte) and tone (from sul tasto to sul ponticello), for each bow stroke type being played on each of the four strings (three different pitches per string) at two different tempi. The data, containing audio, video, and motion capture streams, has been processed and segmented to facilitate upcoming analyses. From the acquired motion data, the positions of the instrument string ends and the bow hair ribbon ends are tracked and processed to obtain a number of bowing descriptors suited for a detailed description and analysis of the bow motion patterns taking place during performance. Likewise, a number of sound perceptual attributes are computed from the audio streams. Besides the methodology and the implementation of a number of data acquisition tools, this project introduces preliminary results from analyzing bowing technique on a multi-modal violin performance database that is unique in its class. A further contribution of this project is the data itself, which will be made available to the scientific community through the repovizz platform.

Cognitive Auditory Evoked Potentials in Investigation of Hearing Discrimination

Preattentive perception of occasional deviating stimuli in the stream of standard stimuli can be recorded with cognitive event-related potential (ERP) mismatch negativity (MMN). The earlier detection of stimuli at the auditory cortex can be examined with N1 and P2 ERPs. The MMN recording does not require co-operation, it correlates with perceptual threshold, and even complex sounds can be used as stimuli. The aim of this study was to examine different aspects that should be considered when measuring discrimination of hearing with ERPs. The MMN was found to be stimulusintensity- dependent. As the intensity of sine wave stimuli was increased from 40 to 80 dB HL, MMN mean amplitudes increased. The effect of stimulus frequency on the MMN was studied so that the pitch difference would be equal in each stimulus block according to the psychophysiological mel scale or the difference limen of frequency (DLF). However, the blocks differed from each other. The contralateral white noise masking (50 dB EML) was found to attenuate the MMN amplitude when the right ear was stimulated. The N1 amplitude was attenuated and, in contrast, P2 amplitude was not affected by contralateral white noise masking. The perception and production of vowels by four postlingually deafened patients with a cochlear implant were studied. The MMN response could be elicited in the patient with the best vowel perception abilities. The results of the studies show that concerning the MMN recordings, the stimulus parameters and recording procedure design have a great influence on the results.

Brainstem auditory-evoked potential in Boxer dogs

Brainstem auditory-evoked potential (BAEP) has been widely used for different purposes in veterinary practice and is commonly used to identify inherited deafness and presbycusis. In this study, 43 Boxer dogs were evaluated using the BAEP. Deafness was diagnosed in 3 dogs (2 bilateral and 1 unilateral) allowing the remaining 40 Boxers to be included for normative data analysis including an evaluation on the influence of age on the BAEP. The animals were divided into 2 groups of 20 Boxers each based on age. The mean age was 4.54 years (range, 1-8) in group I, and 9.83 years (range, 8.5-12) in group II. The mean latency for I, III, and V waves were 1.14 (±0.07), 2.64 (±0.11), and 3.48 (±0.10) ms in group I, and 1.20 (±0.12), 2.73 (±0.15), and 3.58 (±0.22) ms in group II, respectively. The mean inter-peak latencies for the I-III, III-V and I-V intervals were 1.50 (±0.15), 0.84 (±0.15), and 2.34 (±0.11) ms in group I, and 1.53 (±0.16), 0.85 (±0.15), and 2.38 (±0.19) ms in group II, respectively. Latencies of waves I and III were significant different between group I and II. For the I-III, III-V and I-V intervals, no significant differences were observed between the 2 groups. As far as we know, this is the first normative study of BAEP obtained from Boxer dogs.

Signaled two-way avoidance learning using electrical stimulation of the inferior colliculus as negative reinforcement: effects of visual and auditory cues as warning stimuli

The inferior colliculus is a primary relay for the processing of auditory information in the brainstem. The inferior colliculus is also part of the so-called brain aversion system as animals learn to switch off the electrical stimulation of this structure. The purpose of the present study was to determine whether associative learning occurs between aversion induced by electrical stimulation of the inferior colliculus and visual and auditory warning stimuli. Rats implanted with electrodes into the central nucleus of the inferior colliculus were placed inside an open-field and thresholds for the escape response to electrical stimulation of the inferior colliculus were determined. The rats were then placed inside a shuttle-box and submitted to a two-way avoidance paradigm. Electrical stimulation of the inferior colliculus at the escape threshold (98.12 ± 6.15 (A, peak-to-peak) was used as negative reinforcement and light or tone as the warning stimulus. Each session consisted of 50 trials and was divided into two segments of 25 trials in order to determine the learning rate of the animals during the sessions. The rats learned to avoid the inferior colliculus stimulation when light was used as the warning stimulus (13.25 ± 0.60 s and 8.63 ± 0.93 s for latencies and 12.5 ± 2.04 and 19.62 ± 1.65 for frequencies in the first and second halves of the sessions, respectively, P<0.01 in both cases). No significant changes in latencies (14.75 ± 1.63 and 12.75 ± 1.44 s) or frequencies of responses (8.75 ± 1.20 and 11.25 ± 1.13) were seen when tone was used as the warning stimulus (P>0.05 in both cases). Taken together, the present results suggest that rats learn to avoid the inferior colliculus stimulation when light is used as the warning stimulus. However, this learning process does not occur when the neutral stimulus used is an acoustic one. Electrical stimulation of the inferior colliculus may disturb the signal transmission of the stimulus to be conditioned from the inferior colliculus to higher brain structures such as amygdala

Relative contribution of expectancy and immediate arousal to the facilitatory effect of an auditory accessory stimulus

An auditory stimulus speeds up a digital response to a subsequent visual stimulus. This facilitatory effect has been related to the expectancy and the immediate arousal that would be caused by the accessory stimulus. The present study examined the relative contribution of these two influences. In a first and a third experiment a simple reaction time task was used. In a second and fourth experiment a go/no-go reaction time task was used. In each of these experiments, the accessory stimulus preceded the target stimulus by 200 ms for one group of male and female volunteers (G Fix). For another group of similar volunteers (G Var) the accessory stimulus preceded the target stimulus by 200 ms in 25% of the trials, by 1000 ms in 25% of the trials and was not followed by the target stimulus in 50% of the trials (Experiments 1a and 1b) or preceded the target stimulus by 200 ms in 6% of the trials and by 1000 ms in 94% of the trials (Experiments 2a and 2b). There was a facilitatory effect of the accessory stimulus for G Fix in the four experiments. There was also a facilitatory effect of the accessory stimulus at the 200-ms stimulus onset asynchrony for G Var in Experiments 1a and 1b but not in Experiments 2a and 2b. The facilitatory effects observed were larger in the go/no-go task than in the simple task. Taken together, these results suggest that expectancy is much more important than immediate arousal for the improvement of performance caused by an accessory stimulus.

How auditory temporal processing deficits relate to dyslexia

Studies have shown that dyslexic children present a deficiency in the temporal processing of auditory stimuli applied in rapid succession. However, discussion continues concerning the way this deficiency can be influenced by temporal variables of auditory processing tests. Therefore, the purpose of the present study was to analyze by auditory temporal processing tests the effect of temporal variables such as interstimulus intervals, stimulus duration and type of task on dyslexic children compared to a control group. Of the 60 children evaluated, 33 were dyslexic (mean age = 10.5 years) and 27 were normal controls (mean age = 10.8 years). Auditory processing tests assess the abilities of discrimination and ordering of stimuli in relation to their duration and frequency. Results showed a significant difference in the average accuracy of control and dyslexic groups considering each variable (interstimulus intervals: 47.9 ± 5.5 vs 37.18 ± 6.0; stimulus duration: 61.4 ± 7.6 vs 50.9 ± 9.0; type of task: 59.9 ± 7.9 vs 46.5 ± 9.0) and the dyslexic group demonstrated significantly lower performance in all situations. Moreover, there was an interactive effect between the group and the duration of stimulus variables for the frequency-pattern tests, with the dyslexic group demonstrating significantly lower results for short durations (53.4 ± 8.2 vs 48.4 ± 11.1), as opposed to no difference in performance for the control group (62.2 ± 7.1 vs 60.6 ± 7.9). These results support the hypothesis that associates dyslexia with auditory temporal processing, identifying the stimulus-duration variable as the only one that unequally influenced the performance of the two groups.

Effect of auditory training on the middle latency response in children with (central) auditory processing disorder

The purpose of this study was to determine the middle latency response (MLR) characteristics (latency and amplitude) in children with (central) auditory processing disorder [(C)APD], categorized as such by their performance on the central auditory test battery, and the effects of these characteristics after auditory training. Thirty children with (C)APD, 8 to 14 years of age, were tested using the MLR-evoked potential. This group was then enrolled in an 8-week auditory training program and then retested at the completion of the program. A control group of 22 children without (C)APD, composed of relatives and acquaintances of those involved in the research, underwent the same testing at equal time intervals, but were not enrolled in the auditory training program. Before auditory training, MLR results for the (C)APD group exhibited lower C3-A1 and C3-A2 wave amplitudes in comparison to the control group [C3-A1, 0.84 µV (mean), 0.39 (SD - standard deviation) for the (C)APD group and 1.18 µV (mean), 0.65 (SD) for the control group; C3-A2, 0.69 µV (mean), 0.31 (SD) for the (C)APD group and 1.00 µV (mean), 0.46 (SD) for the control group]. After training, the MLR C3-A1 [1.59 µV (mean), 0.82 (SD)] and C3-A2 [1.24 µV (mean), 0.73 (SD)] wave amplitudes of the (C)APD group significantly increased, so that there was no longer a significant difference in MLR amplitude between (C)APD and control groups. These findings suggest progress in the use of electrophysiological measurements for the diagnosis and treatment of (C)APD.

Facilitatory effects of an auditory warning stimulus in a visual location identification task and a visual shape identification task

The occurrence of a weak auditory warning stimulus increases the speed of the response to a subsequent visual target stimulus that must be identified. This facilitatory effect has been attributed to the temporal expectancy automatically induced by the warning stimulus. It has not been determined whether this results from a modulation of the stimulus identification process, the response selection process or both. The present study examined these possibilities. A group of 12 young adults performed a reaction time location identification task and another group of 12 young adults performed a reaction time shape identification task. A visual target stimulus was presented 1850 to 2350 ms plus a fixed interval (50, 100, 200, 400, 800, or 1600 ms, depending on the block) after the appearance of a fixation point, on its left or right side, above or below a virtual horizontal line passing through it. In half of the trials, a weak auditory warning stimulus (S1) appeared 50, 100, 200, 400, 800, or 1600 ms (according to the block) before the target stimulus (S2). Twelve trials were run for each condition. The S1 produced a facilitatory effect for the 200, 400, 800, and 1600 ms stimulus onset asynchronies (SOA) in the case of the side stimulus-response (S-R) corresponding condition, and for the 100 and 400 ms SOA in the case of the side S-R non-corresponding condition. Since these two conditions differ mainly by their response selection requirements, it is reasonable to conclude that automatic temporal expectancy influences the response selection process.