末次冰消期以来东亚季风演化：来自东海和北黄海沉积孢粉记录

本论文通过对冲绳海槽南部的MD05-2908孔、北黄海的B-U35、B-U41、B-L44孔和北黄海的299份表层样中的孢粉组成、堆积速率、有机碳氮同位素的综合研究，分析了北黄海的孢粉来源、传播动力和途径，并与其它古气候记录对比，重建了末次冰消期以来东亚季风的演化。 MD05-2908孔孢粉组合特征显示6800-3800a BP间气候温暖干燥，其间存在着两次明显的温度降低、湿度增加阶段，即6800-6600a BP和5800-4850a BP；3800a BP以后，气候变得比较寒冷湿润，中世纪暖期和小冰期分别位于990-480a BP和480-230a BP。 北黄海表层孢粉百分含量等值线图显示北黄海不同海域孢粉来源不同，北黄 海东部海域(123.5°E以东的陆架区域)孢粉主要来源于鸭绿江；北黄海中部海域(123.5°E-122.6°E的陆架区域)孢粉来源比较复杂，既有来自辽东半岛、沿海岛屿、山东半岛，还有由黄海暖流携带而来的；北黄海西部海域(122.6°E以西的陆架区域)孢粉以黄海沿岸流携带而来的黄河来源的为主。 北黄海表层孢粉百分含量等值线图还显示，北黄海东部海域孢粉分布主要受 鸭绿江冲淡水影响，波浪和潮汐的作用较弱；北黄海中部海域孢粉分布受黄海暖流和辽东沿岸流的分支共同影响；黄海暖流与黄海沿岸流在山东半岛东北部相遇，形成一逆时针方向的涡旋，该涡旋控制着北黄海西部海域孢粉的分布。 B-U35孔、B-U41和B-L44孔孢粉组合特征显示，12830-12350a BP时气候 寒冷干燥，植被以旱生草本植物为主，时间上可能对应YD事件；12350-10100a BP时植被以针叶林为主，林下生长着大量蕨类植物，气候寒冷湿润，可能对应着YD事件；10100-6600a BP时植被以落叶阔叶林为主，伴生大量旱生草本植物，气候温暖干燥；6600-5000a BP时植被以针叶-落叶阔叶混交林为主，旱生草本植物含量下降，相对上一阶段温度有所降低，但气候更湿润，可能对应全新世最佳期；5000-4000a BP时针叶林所占比例扩大，温度再次降低，湿度变化不明显；4000-500a BP旱生草本植物含量增加，气候寒冷干燥；500a BP-至今，受人类活动影响，植被遭到严重破坏。 B-U35孔和B-U41孔淡水水生植物花粉百分含量曲线显示11750a BP以来黄河河口地区沼泽湿地面积几经变化。10100-6600a BP时沼泽湿地范围在上一阶段的基础上进一步扩大；6600-2850a BP间沼泽湿地大面积缩小，水生植物属种式微；2850a BP之后黄河河口地区沼泽湿地面积再次扩大，水生植物重新繁盛。 MD05-2908孔蕨类孢子百分含量被用来作为中国东南部季风演化的代用指标。结果显示6800-3800a BP时夏季风较强，其间有两次夏季风减弱阶段，分别位于6800-6600a BP和5800-4850a BP，3800a BP以来，夏季风明显减弱，此期的夏季风减弱除受太阳辐射量的减少影响外，可能还与El Nino的频繁爆发有关。 B-U35孔和B-U41孔蒿属、藜科、麻黄科百分含量被用来作为中国中北部夏季风演化的代用指标。研究表明，11750a BP以来东亚夏季风强度在10100-6600a BP时，显著加强，6600a BP左右，夏季风开始减弱，4000a BP以后夏季风显著减弱。 将MD05-2908孔、B-U35孔和B-U41孔夏季风代用指标进行对比发现，中晚全新世以来中国南-北湿度变化特征正好相反，东亚夏季风强度变化以及由此引起的雨锋的南进北撤可能是导致中国不同区域中晚全新世以来降雨量不同的主要原因。

东亚低空异常季风风场时空特征分析

应用矢量经验正交函数（Vector EOF）方法和长序列网格点风距平资料对东亚季风区低空异常风场进行分析，以揭示东亚季风区矢量风场异常的主要模态及其年际、年代际振荡特征和成因。 研究方法包括： 1)EOF方法是将一个空间观测场的时间序列资料分解成若干重要的正交的空间和时间模态，从而提取大气和海洋观测资料的主要时空变率特征（即模态）。目前，EOF模态也可直接由奇异值分解（SVD）方法计算获得，勿需再对观测资料矩阵进行协方差矩阵的计算。首先将风场资料集的 分量矩阵和 分量矩阵融合成为一个新矩阵 ，然后对该新矩阵 应用SVD方法进行计算，获得 分量和 分量的主要的EOF空间模态及其统一的时间模态。最后，将 分量和 分量的各主要空间模态进行合并处理，形成矢量形式的彼此正交的EOF空间模态。由于是对矩阵 进行EOF分解（而不是对 和 分别进行EOF分解），所获得的 和 的空间特征模态对应于相同的时间系数，从而可以合并成为一个具有现实意义的特征风场（即全风矢量场）。 2)将滤波技术（例如，Butterworth滤波器）和各种谱分析技术（包括功率谱、交叉谱和奇异谱SSA）应用于时间模态，探讨其年际、年代际振荡特征及与ENSO的联系。 所使用资料为NCEP/NCAR提出的1950年1月至2004年12月850 hPa全球月平均风场网格点资料，资料分辨率为2.5°×2.5°。研究区为0～50N，100～150E。 结果表明，东亚异常季风典型流场第一模态（VEOF-1）属于ENSO相关模态，其时间模态与Nino3指数之间具有较高的负相关关系，但以季风异常滞后ENSO进程6～8个月为最显著。这表明，东亚热带和副热带季风风场变异与ENSO之间联系紧密。提出了一个VEOF-1对ENSO响应的概念模型。 前6个模态，其积累方差贡献率接近60％，基本可表达东亚季风区风场异常的典型类型。 （1）东亚异常季风模态VEOF-1以年际尺度振荡最为显著（是年际尺度振荡的代表模态），并以2～4年周期为最显著；东亚异常季风模态VEOF-2至VEOF-4则主要表现为11年～20年尺度的年代际变化。 （2）东亚异常季风VEOF-1时间模态与Nino3指数之间具有较高的负相关，并以VEOF-1落后Nino3距平变化6～8个月为最显著。 对矢量风距平流场作VEOF展开，能揭示季风变异的空间结构特征和时间振荡规律，并具有直观的天气学意义。 VEOF-1属于ENSO相关模态，其时间模态与Nino3指数之间具有较高的负相关关系，但以季风异常的响应滞后ENSO事件6～8个月为最显著。也即在它们之间的遥相关关系中，赤道东太平洋SST持续地异常升高（降低），6～8个月后东亚异常季风VEOF-1模态明显减弱（加强）。

三门峡宋家店黄土－古土壤序列的地层学研究及其古环境记录

The Sanmen Gorge area is located in the southernmost margin of the Chinese Loess Plateau with well developed eolian deposit sequence for the past 2.6 Ma, providing a key site for further understanding of the evolution history of the East Asian monsoon since late Pliocene. This study attempted to characterize the stratigraphy and paleoclimate record of the loess-paleosol sequence in the Songjiadian section. The work involved includes systematic field investigation, paleomagnetic and rock magnetic analyses, grain size and major chemical composition analyses, and multiple proxy measurements of magnetic susceptibility, color reflectance and the ratio of CBD-dissolvable iron to the total iron (FeD/FeT). By comparisons of the Songjiadian section with well studied loess sections in the west of the Sanmen Gorge, the spatial variations of the East Asian monsoon was evaluated for some periods during which typical loess or paleosols developed. The following conclusions have been obtained. 1. Stratigraphic correlation and paleomagnetic result demonstrate that the loess-paleosol sequence in the Songjiadian section was accumulated from 2.6Ma, and is generally a complete and continuous loess sequence. However, notable differences from type loess sections have been identified for a few loess and paleosol units, featured by absence or anomalous thickness in the Songjiadian section. 2. Magnetic susceptibility and chromaticity records clearly reveal the loess-paleosol cycles, and indicate that the Sanmen Gorge area has been warmer and more humid than the Lingtai and Jingchuan sections in the western central Loess Plateau since the Early Pleistocene. 3. Grain size distribution patterns are typical of eolian dust, and show a great similarity between various units of loess and paleosols, and between the S32 and the underlying Red Clay through the Songjiadian profile, suggesting the eolian origin for the loess, paleosols and the Red Clay. 4. Comparison of the FeD/FeT curves from different loess sections indicates a stronger chemical weathering in the Songjiadian section and notable enhancement around 1800, 800 and 600 ka BP, implying the strengthening of the East Asian monsoon during these periods. In contrast, it was weakened at 1100 ka BP. Generally, the summer monsoon shows a gradually decreasing trend during the entire Pleostocene, but the spatial pattern typified by an increasing trend in weathering intensity from north to south remained the same. 5. The loess unit L9 in the Songjiadian section displays two geomagnetic field anomalies with the midpoint ages of 0.917 and 0.875 Ma respectively, with a segment of 12 ka. They are demonstrated to be equivalent to the Santa Rosa and Kamikatsura geomagnetic excursions. 6. Magnetite is the main magnetic carrier for both loess and paleosols. Maghemite concentration is higher in paleosols than in loess, and is an important carrier for the enhanced magnetic susceptibility in paleosols. Magnetic fabric analysis suggests a dominant N-S wind direction prevailing in the L9 and L15, while the summer winds were dominantly in NNE-SSW direction during the S8 period, notably differing from previous studies.

陇西盆地晚第三纪风尘沉积的地层学研究

In Asia, the significant environment changes in Cenozoic include: uplift of Himalayas and Tibetan Plateau, formation Asian monsoon system, Aridification in Central Asia. One of major advances in recent studies of eolian deposit on the Loess Plateau is the verification of the eolian origin for the Late Tertiary Hipparion Red-Earth (also called red-Clay) underlying the Quaternary loess. Thus, the Late Tertiary eolian deposit, which has been proven a nearly continuous terrestrial record and sensitive to climate change, provides us an important archive to understand these above Cenozoic environment events. The deposit in eastern Loess Plateau has been extensively studied, while the property and age of deposit underlying the Quaternary loess in western plateau remains unclear. In this paper, detail investigations were made on the Sedimentology, geochemistry of Longxi section, a typical section in western Loess Plateau, to address its origin, and on micromammalian fossils and magnetostratigraphy to address its age. The main conclusions are presented as following: 1. The sedimentological and geochemical properties in Longxi section are highly similar to typical Quaternary eolian deposit in Loess Plateau. Nearly 100 paleosols are recognized in the field, and the grain size are very fine with the median grain size centered at 4～7μm. There is a good agreement of both major and trace element compositions between Longxi deposit and the Quaternary Loess. The REE distribution patterns of Longxi deposit and the Quaternary loess are remarkably similar in shape, with enrichment LREE and fairly flat HREE profiles and clear negative Eu anomaly. The mangnetic minerals in Longxi deposit are mainly magnetite, hematite and maghematite, which are similar to those of the Hipparion Red-Earth and Quaternary Loess. The major difference among them is that the samples from Longxi section contain more hematite. The characteristics of anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility (AMS) in Longxi deposit is highly consistent with that of Quaternary loess, while values of the major AMS parameters, e.g. anisotropy degree, magnetic foliation and lineation, are significantly lower than those of fluvial and lake deposits. These evidences indicate an eolian origin for the sediment. 2. An investigation of micromammalian fossils was firstly carried out for determining the approximate age of the sequence because of lack of materials for accurate isotope dating. Three fossil assemblages were obtained which indicate a chronological range from the Middle Miocene to Late Miocene. The magnetostratigraphical study suggests that it is a near continuous terrestrial record for the period from 13.23 to 6.23 MaB.P. The obtained chronology is highly consistent with fossils assemblages. This section is the oldest eolian deposit presently known in Loess Plateau. 3. The magnetic susceptibly value is high in paleosols than in surrounded weak-weathered layers, which suggests that it may be a climate index on orbital time scale. While it cannot be used as a proxy to address the long-term, change of climate on tectonic time scale, as content of the magnetic minerals is highly variable in different parts of the section. 4. The appearance of Middle Miocene eolian deposit in the Loess Plateau marks the strengthening of aridification of Central Asia. The high degree of similarity between the geochemical properties of Longxi eolian deposit, Hipparion Red-Earth and Quaternary loess a suggests that a rather similar source provenance. The dust accumulation rate (DAR) of Longxi section, which is widely used as a proxy to document the aridity in source areas in marine and terrestrial record studies, recorded the aridity condition in northwestern China over a period from Middle Miocene to Late Miocene. The DAR of the section shows that the continent aridity remains moderate and relative stable over that period.

2200万年来风尘沉积的粒度变化及古气候意义

Three eolian deposit formations, including Quaternary loess (QL, Liu et al.3 1985), Hipparion red earth (HRE, also called red clay, Liu et al., 1985) and Miocene loess (ML, Guo et al., 2002) constitute a set of unique paleoclimatic archives in northern China dated back to at least 22Ma ago. The Miocene loess is a recently discovered loess-soil sequence. Detailed investigation has been made on its origin, chronology and paleoclimatic significance (Guo et al., 2002), but further work is still needed to obtain detailed paleoclimate information, and mechanical links behind paleoclimatic changes. In this study, grain size analysis of QL, HRE and ML has been conducted on two sections: Qinan and Xifeng. The objective is focused on comparison of the grain size distribution characteristics (GSDC) among different eolian deposit formations, and reconstruction of the Asian monsoon circulation in the past 22 Ma. Results show that GDSC of ML resembles that of QL and HRE, and GDSC of ML is especially similar to HRE. Both ML and HRE contain a significant proportion of fine fraction, however, QL has a large amount of coarse sediments. This is mainly due to that the wind system transported aeolian dust was weaker in the late Tertiary than that in the Quaternary. Grain size difference between loess and paleosol in ML is much smaller than that in QL, indicating that the climatic fluctuations during the late Tertiary were much smaller than that happened in the Quaternary The grain size records of the past 22 Ma reveal several evolution phases of the Asia winter monsoon. -2.7 Ma BP is the most important boundary in the process of the winter monsoon evolution: the wind strength have significantly enhanced since 2.7 Ma ago. During a period between -22.0 and -3.6 Ma, three periods with relatively stronger winter monsoon are recorded in the QA-I section, between 21.2 and 19.9, and 16.0 and 13.3, and 8.7 to 6.9 Ma, respectively. From 3.6 to 2.7, the winter monsoon was enhanced gradually. In the Miocene time, the intensified winter monsoon phases (between 21.2 and 19.9, and 16.0 and 13.3, and 8.7 and 6.9 Ma) seemed to have a close relationship with the uplift of the Tibetan Plateau and/or the ongoing global cooling, but the forcing mechanism behind the Asia winter monsoon evolution need to be further investigated. During the Pliocene-Pleistocene time, the Asia winter monsoon strengthened at 3.6 and 2.7Ma ago are in good agreement with the ongoing global cooling and the Arctic ice sheet development. In the mean time, much evidence suggests that an intense uplift of the Tibetan Plateau occurred at ~3.6 Ma, which is synchronous with a major increase in Asia winter monsoon. Therefore, two major factors may be invoked to explain the winter monsoon enhancement: Arctic ice sheet development and Tibetan uplift. We propose that changes in location and intensity of the Siberian-Mongolian high that were caused by the Tibetan uplift and Arctic ice sheet development might be an important factor for Asian winter monsoon evolution in the Pliocene-Pleistocene.

宁夏固原寺口子剖面磁性地层与孢粉植物群初步研究

In Asia continent, several significant environmental events happened during the Cenozoic era, such as uplift of the Tibet Plateau, formation of the Asian Monsoon system, aridification of the temperate inland region in Central Asia. To investigate the history of long-term palaeoclimate evolution during the late Cenozoic, a lacustrine sequence located at Sikouzi, Guyuan county, Ningxia-Hui Autonomous Region, was studied. The Sikouzi section is about 2880 m in thickness and has a general continuous nature according to field observation. Thus this thick lacustrine record is an important archive to further understand those environmental events. In this study, detailed field measurement, layer-after-layer description and sampling, and magnetostratigraphy and palynoflora investigations are conducted at the Sikouzi section and some preliminary results have been achieved as follows. Based on Hipparion fauna, pollen data and long distinctive patterns of the local magnetozones, the confident correlation of the Sikouzi magnetostratigraphic polarity to the GPTS (CK95) is best established, indicating that the top boundary of the Sikouzi formation is dated back to -19.8 Ma B.P. and consequently no Oligocene sediments deposited locally. On the other hand, both the field observation and the correlation to GPTS indicate a nearly continuous nature for the whole sequence. The palynological results show that the grassland has been a dominant vegetation in the Sikouzi area since ~19.8 Ma B.P, although some trees/shrubs were present sparsely during the intervals of relatively warm and wet climatic conditions. This implies that the onset of the aridification in northwestern China is dated back to at least 19.8 Ma B.P. ago. The Neogene Global Climatic Optimum (-16.0 Ma B.P.) occurring between the late Early Miocene and the early Middle Miocene is well documented in the Shanwang formation, Shandong Province. However, such event was not found in the Sikouzi record, and neither in the Guide and the Hualong basins, Qinghai province. This may lead us to the conclusion that the East-Asian Summer Monsoon system remained weak during the period of the Miocene Climatic Optimum although the onset of it was traced back to the Early Oligocene. In the Sikouzi area, it was warm between the latest Miocene and the early Pliocene and then became cool in the late Pliocene. This pattern is consistent with the palaeoclimate record of the Pliocene from other areas in the world.

亚洲地形和海陆分布变化对东亚环境格局形成演化的作用：数值模拟与地质记录对比

Earlier studies on the distribution of geological environmental indicators in China revealed drastic changes from a zonal climate pattern (planetary-wave-dominant pattern) in the Paleogene to a monsoon-dominant one in the Neogene, which suggested an inception of the initial East-Asian summer monsoon. However, there are different views about the time and causes of the changes.Here, we attempt to compile a series of paleoenvironmental maps based on newly collected climate indicators from the literatures and chronologically constrained evidence of geological maps in order to re-examine the temporal and spatial evolution of climate belts in China during the Cenozoic with special emphasis on the changes of the arid belt. These indicators include mammalian fauna, coal, carbonate concretions, jarosite, salt, gypsum deposits and pollen assemblages etc, with chronological controls that we believe reliable. Pollen assemblages and mammalian fauna have been classified into three categories (arid, semi-arid/sub-humid, humid) to reflect the intensity of aridity/humidity. Salt, jarosite and gypsum deposits are classified as the arid indicators. Carbonate concretions and coal are classified into the semi-arid/sub-humid and humid one respectively. Paleoenvironmental maps at 8 time slices have been reconstructed. They are the Paleocene, Eocene, Oligocene, Miocene, Early Miocene, Middle Miocene, Late Miocene and Pliocene.And furthermore, we attempt to use IAP^AGCM to simulate the evolution of climate belts in emphasizing on the changes of the rain band, and compare the results with the paleoenvironmental maps in order to examine the causes of the drastic paleoenvironmental changes near the Oligocene/Miocene boundary. 36 sensitive numerical experiments are carried out using the IAP__AGCM to analyze the impacts of the uplift of the Himalayan-Tibetan complex, shrinkage of the Paratethys Sea, expansion of the South China Sea and the development of the polar ice sheets on rain band in China.The main conclusions are as follows:The obtained results essentially confirm the earlier conclusions about a zonal climate pattern in the Paleogene and a different pattern in the Neogene, and illustrate that a monsoon-dominant environmental pattern with inland aridity formed by the Early Miocene, which is temporally consist with the onset of eolian deposits in China.Cenozoic cooling and the formation of polar ice sheets are unlikely the main causes to the changes of environmental patterns mentioned above in China. But northern hemispheric cooling and the ice-sheets can intensify the Siberian High Pressure, and strengthen the winter monsoon circulations and enhance the aridity in the west part of China. These results support the earlier studies.Shrinkage of the Paratethys Sea and uplift of the Himalayan-Tibetan complex played important roles in strengthening the East Asian monsoon and induceing the above changes of environmental pattern, which is consistent with the earlier studies. Furthermore, "the monsoon-dominant pattern" appears when the Himalayan-Tibetan complex reaches to about 1000-2000 meters high and the Paratethys Sea retreats to the Turan Plate.4) Expansion of the South China Sea is another significant factor that drives the evolution of environmental patterns. We believe that the above three factors co-act and drive the change of the environmental patterns from a planetary-wave-dominant one to a monsoon-dominant one. However, the impacts of each factor vary by regions. The uplift mainly increases the humidity in Southwestern China and the aridity in northwestern country. The shrinkage mainly increases the humidity in Northern China and also enhances the aridity in the northwestern country. The expansion greatly increases the humidity in the south part of China.

Holocene environmental changes in northeast Thailand as reconstructed from a tropical wetland

Geochemical variables (TOC, C/N, TS, delta C-13) and diatom assemblages were analyzed in a lake sediment sequence from Nong (Lake) Han Kumphawapi in northeast Thailand to reconstruct regional climatic and environmental history during the Holocene. By around c. 10,000-9400 cal yr BP, a large shallow freshwater lake had formed in the Kumphawapi basin. Oxygenated bottom waters and a well-mixed water column were characteristic of this early lake stage, which was probably initiated by higher effective moisture and a stronger summer monsoon. Decreased run-off after c. 6700 cal yr BP favored increased aquatic productivity in the shallow lake. Multiple proxies indicate a marked lowering of the lake level around 5900 cal yr BP, the development of an extensive wetland around 5400 cal yr BP, and the subsequent transition to a peatland. The shift from shallow lake to wetland and later to a peatland is interpreted as a response to lower effective moisture. A hiatus at the transition from wetland to peatland suggests very low accumulation rates, which may result from very dry climatic conditions. A rise in groundwater and lake level around 3200 cal yr BP allowed the re-establishment of a wetland in the Kumphawapi basin. However, the sediments deposited between c. 3200 and 1600 cal yr BP provide evidence for at least two hiatuses at c. 2700-2500 cal yr BP, and at c. 1900-1600 cal yr BP, which would suggest surface dryness and consequently periods of low effective moisture. Around 1600 cal yr BP a new shallow lake became re-established in the basin. Although the underlying causes for this new lake phase remain unclear, we hypothesize that higher effective moisture was the main driving force. This shallow lake phase continued up to the present but was interrupted by higher nutrient fluxes to the lake around 1000-600 cal yr BP. Whether this was caused by intensified human impact in the catchment or, whether this signals a lowering of the lake level due to reduced effective moisture, needs to be corroborated by further studies in the region. The multi-proxy study of Kumphawapi's sediment core CP3A clearly shows that Kumphawapi is a sensitive archive for recording past shifts in effective moisture, and as such in the intensity of the Asian summer monsoon. Many more continental paleorecords, however, will be needed to fully understand the spatial and temporal patterns of past changes in Asian monsoon intensity and its ecosystem impacts. (C) 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Hydroclimatic shifts in northeast Thailand during the last two millennia - the record of Lake Pa Kho

The Southeast Asian mainland is located in the central path of the Asian summer monsoon, a region where paleoclimatic data are still sparse. Here we present a multi-proxy (TOC, C/N, δ¹³C, biogenic silica, and XRF elemental data) study of a 1.5m sediment/peat sequence from Lake Pa Kho, northeast Thailand, which is supported by 20 AMS ¹⁴C ages. Hydroclimatic reconstructions for Pa Kho suggest a strengthened summer monsoon between BC 170-AD 370, AD 800-960, and after AD 1450; and a weakening of the summer monsoon between AD 370-800, and AD 1300-1450. Increased run-off and a higher nutrient supply after AD 1700 can be linked to agricultural intensification and land-use changes in the region. This study fills an important gap in data coverage with respect to summer monsoon variability over Southeast Asia during the past 2000 years and enables the mean position of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) to be inferred based on comparisons with other regional studies. Intervals of strengthened/weaker summer monsoon rainfall suggest that the mean position of the ITCZ was located as far north as 35°N between BC 170-AD 370 and AD 800-960, whereas it likely did not reach above 17°N during the drought intervals of AD 370-800 and AD 1300-1450. The spatial pattern of rainfall variation seems to have changed after AD 1450, when the inferred moisture history for Pa Kho indicates a more southerly location of the mean position of the summer ITCZ.

Pollen and grain size records in abyssal sediments of the northwest Pacific Ocean as proxies of Plio-Pleistocene climate change /

A distinctive period of global change occurred during the PUocene between the warm Miocene and subsequent Quaternary cooling. Samples from Ocean Drilling Project Site 11 79 (-5586 mbsl, 41°4'N, 159°57'E), Site 881 (-5765 mbsl, 47°6.133'N, 161°29.490'E) and Site 882 (-3255 mbsl, 50°22'N, 167°36'E) were studied to determine the magnitude and composition ofterrigenous flux to the western mid-latitude North Pacific and its relation to climate change in East Asia since the mid-Pliocene. Dust-sized particles (including pollen), sourced from the arid regions and loess plateaus in East Asia are entrained by prevailing westerly winds and transported to the midlatitude northwest North Pacific Ocean. This is recorded by peaks in the total concentration of pollen and spores, as well as the mean grain size of allochthonous and autochthonous silicate material in abyssal marine sediments. Aridification of the Asian interior due to the phased uplift of the Himalayan-Tibetan Plateau created the modem East Asian Monsoon system dominated by a strengthening of the winter monsoon. The winter monsoon is further enhanced during glacials due to the expansion of desert and steppe environments at the expense ofwoodlands and forests recorded by the composition of palynological assemblages. The late Pliocene-Pleistocene glacials at ODP Sites 1 179, 881, and 882 are characterized by increases in grain size, magnetic susceptibility, pollen and spore concentrations around 3.5-3.3, 2.6-2.4, 1.7-1.6, and 0.9-0.7 Ma (ages based on magnetostratigraphic and biostratigraphic datums). The peaks during these times are relatively rich in pollen taxa derived primarily from steppe and boreal vegetation zones, recording cool, dry climates. The overall size increase of sediment and abundance of terrestrial palynomorphs record enhanced wind strength. The increase in magnitude of pollen and spore concentrations as well as grain size record global cooling and Northern Hemisphere glaciation. The peaks in grain size as well as pollen and spore abundance in marine sediments correlate with the mean grain size of loess in East Asia, consistent with the deflation of unarmoured surfaces during glacials. The transport of limiting nutrients to marine environments enhanced sea surface productivity and increased the rate of sediment accumulation.

Seasonality and interannual variability of the westerly jet in the Tibetan Plateau region

In this study, 40-yr ECMWF Re-Analysis (ERA-40) data are used for the description of the seasonal cycle and the interannual variability of the westerly jet in the Tibetan Plateau region. To complement results based on the analysis of monthly mean horizontal wind speeds, an occurrence-based jet climatology is constructed by identifying the locations of the jet axes at 6-hourly intervals throughout 1958–2001. Thus, a dataset describing the highly transient and localized features of jet variability is obtained. During winter and summer the westerly jet is located, respectively, to the south and north of the Tibetan Plateau. During the spring and autumn seasons there are jet transitions from south to north and vice versa. The median dates for these transitions are 28 April and 12 October. The spring transition is associated with large interannual variations, while the fall transition occurs more reliably within a 3-week period. The strength of the jet exhibits a peculiar seasonal cycle. During northward migration in April/May, the jet intensity weakens and its latitudinal position varies largely. In some springs, there are several transitions and split configurations occur before the jet settles in its northern summer position. In June, a well-defined and unusually strong jet reappears at the northern flanks of the Tibetan Plateau. In autumn, the jet gradually but reliably recedes to the south and is typically more intense than in spring. The jet transitions between the two preferred locations follow the seasonal latitudinal migration of the jet in the Northern Hemisphere. An analysis of interannual variations shows the statistical relationship between the strength of the summer jet, the tropospheric meridional temperature gradient, and the all-India rainfall series. Both this analysis and results from previous studies point to the particular dynamical relevance of the onsetting Indian summer monsoon precipitation and the associated diabatic heating for the formation of the strong summer jet. Finally, an example is provided that illustrates the climatological significance of the jet in terms of the covariation between the jet location and the spatial precipitation distribution in central Asia.

Mid-Holocene monsoons: a multi-model analysis of the inter-hemispheric differences in the responses to orbital forcing and ocean feedbacks

The response of monsoon circulation in the northern and southern hemisphere to 6 ka orbital forcing has been examined in 17 atmospheric general circulation models and 11 coupled ocean–atmosphere general circulation models. The atmospheric response to increased summer insolation at 6 ka in the northern subtropics strengthens the northern-hemisphere summer monsoons and leads to increased monsoonal precipitation in western North America, northern Africa and China; ocean feedbacks amplify this response and lead to further increase in monsoon precipitation in these three regions. The atmospheric response to reduced summer insolation at 6 ka in the southern subtropics weakens the southern-hemisphere summer monsoons and leads to decreased monsoonal precipitation in northern South America, southern Africa and northern Australia; ocean feedbacks weaken this response so that the decrease in rainfall is smaller than might otherwise be expected. The role of the ocean in monsoonal circulation in other regions is more complex. There is no discernable impact of orbital forcing in the monsoon region of North America in the atmosphere-only simulations but a strong increase in precipitation in the ocean–atmosphere simulations. In contrast, there is a strong atmospheric response to orbital forcing over northern India but ocean feedback reduces the strength of the change in the monsoon although it still remains stronger than today. Although there are differences in magnitude and exact location of regional precipitation changes from model to model, the same basic mechanisms are involved in the oceanic modulation of the response to orbital forcing and this gives rise to a robust ensemble response for each of the monsoon systems. Comparison of simulated and reconstructed changes in regional climate suggest that the coupled ocean–atmosphere simulations produce more realistic changes in the northern-hemisphere monsoons than atmosphere-only simulations, though they underestimate the observed changes in precipitation in all regions. Evaluation of the southern-hemisphere monsoons is limited by lack of quantitative reconstructions, but suggest that model skill in simulating these monsoons is limited.

Observational challenges in evaluating climate models

Activities like the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP) have revolutionized climate modelling in terms of our ability to compare models and to process information about climate projections and their uncertainties. The evaluation of models against observations is now considered a key component of multi-model studies. While there are a number of outstanding scientific issues surrounding model evaluation, notably the open question of how to link model performance to future projections, here we highlight a specific but growing problem in model evaluation - that of uncertainties in the observational data that are used to evaluate the models. We highlight the problem using an example obtained from studies of the South Asian Monsoon but we believe the problem is a generic one which arises in many different areas of climate model evaluation and which requires some attention by the community.

The depression of tropical snow lines at the Last Glacial Maximum: what can we learn from climate and model experiments?

Analyses of simulations of the last glacial maximum (LGM) made with 17 atmospheric general circulation models (AGCMs) participating in the Paleoclimate Modelling Intercomparison Project, and a high-resolution (T106) version of one of the models (CCSR1), show that changes in the elevation of tropical snowlines (as estimated by the depression of the maximum altitude of the 0 °C isotherm) are primarily controlled by changes in sea-surface temperatures (SSTs). The correlation between the two variables, averaged for the tropics as a whole, is 95%, and remains >80% even at a regional scale. The reduction of tropical SSTs at the LGM results in a drier atmosphere and hence steeper lapse rates. Changes in atmospheric circulation patterns, particularly the weakening of the Asian monsoon system and related atmospheric humidity changes, amplify the reduction in snowline elevation in the northern tropics. Colder conditions over the tropical oceans combined with a weakened Asian monsoon could produce snowline lowering of up to 1000 m in certain regions, comparable to the changes shown by observations. Nevertheless, such large changes are not typical of all regions of the tropics. Analysis of the higher resolution CCSR1 simulation shows that differences between the free atmospheric and along-slope lapse rate can be large, and may provide an additional factor to explain regional variations in observed snowline changes.

Global monsoons in the mid-Holocene and oceanic feedback

The response of the six major summer monsoon systems (the North American monsoon, the northern Africa monsoon, the Asia monsoon, the northern Australasian monsoon, the South America monsoon and the southern Africa monsoon) to mid-Holocene orbital forcing has been investigated using a coupled ocean–atmosphere general circulation model (FOAM), with the focus on the distinct roles of the direct insolation forcing and oceanic feedback. The simulation result is also found to compare well with the NCAR CSM. The direct effects of the change in insolation produce an enhancement of the Northern Hemisphere monsoons and a reduction of the Southern Hemisphere monsoons. Ocean feedbacks produce a further enhancement of the northern Africa monsoon and the North American monsoon. However, ocean feedbacks appear to weaken the Asia monsoon, although the overall effect (direct insolation forcing plus ocean feedback) remains a strengthened monsoon. The impact of ocean feedbacks on the South American and southern African monsoons is relatively small, and therefore these regions, especially the South America, experienced a reduced monsoon regime compared to present. However, there is a strong ocean feedback on the northern Australian monsoon that negates the direct effects of orbital changes and results in a strengthening of austral summer monsoon precipitation in this region. A new synthesis is made for mid-Holocene paleoenvironmental records and is compared with the model simulations. Overall, model simulations produce changes in regional climates that are generally consistent with paleoenvironmental observations.