Identificação de Plasmodium spp. em primatas neotropicais e em anofelinos em municípios da região de São Luís, estado do Maranhão, Brasil

Pós-graduação em Medicina Veterinária - FCAV

Evidence for temporal population replacement and the signature of ecological adaptation in a major Neotropical malaria vector in Amazonian Peru

The major Neotropical malaria vector, Anopheles darlingi, was reintroduced into the Iquitos, Loreto, Peru area during the early 1990s, where it displaced other anophelines and caused a major malaria epidemic. Since then, case numbers in Loreto have fluctuated, but annual increases have been reported since 2012. The population genetic structure of An. darlingi sampled before and after the introduction of long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs) was investigated to test the hypothesis of temporal population change (2006 vs. 2012). Current samples of An. darlingi were used to test the hypothesis of ecological adaptation to human modified (highway) compared with wild (riverine) habitat, linked to forest cover. In total, 693 An. darlingi from nine localities in Loreto, Peru area were genotyped using 13 microsatellite loci. To test the hypothesis of habitat differentiation in An. darlingi biting time patterns, HBR and EIR, four collections of An. darlingi from five localities (two riverine and three highway) were analysed. Analyses of microsatellite loci from seven (2006) and nine settlements (2012-2014) in the Iquitos area detected two distinctive populations with little overlap, although it is unclear whether this population replacement event is associated with LLIN distribution or climate. Within the 2012-2014 population two admixed subpopulations, A and B, were differentiated by habitat, with B significantly overrepresented in highway, and both in near-equal proportions in riverine. Both subpopulations had a signature of expansion and there was moderate genetic differentiation between them. Habitat and forest cover level had significant effects on HBR, such that Plasmodium transmission risk, as measured by EIR, in peridomestic riverine settlements was threefold higher than in peridomestic highway settlements. HBR was directly associated with available host biomass rather than forest cover. A population replacement event occurred between 2006 and 2012-2014, concurrently with LLIN distribution and a moderate El Niño event, and prior to an increase in malaria incidence. The likely drivers of this replacement cannot be determined with current data. The present-day An. darlingi population is composed of two highly admixed subpopulations, which appear to be in an early stage of differentiation, triggered by anthropogenic alterations to local habitat.

Defibrotide Interferes With Several Steps of the Coagulation-Inflammation Cycle and Exhibits Therapeutic Potential to Treat Severe Malaria

Objective-The coagulation-inflammation cycle has been implicated as a critical component in malaria pathogenesis. Defibrotide (DF), a mixture of DNA aptamers, displays anticoagulant, anti-inflammatory, and endothelial cell (EC)-protective activities and has been successfully used to treat comatose children with veno-occlusive disease. DF was investigated here as a drug to treat cerebral malaria. Methods and Results-DF blocks tissue factor expression by ECs incubated with parasitized red blood cells and attenuates prothrombinase activity, platelet aggregation, and complement activation. In contrast, it does not affect nitric oxide bioavailability. We also demonstrated that Plasmodium falciparum glycosylphosphatidylinositol (Pf-GPI) induces tissue factor expression in ECs and cytokine production by dendritic cells. Notably, dendritic cells, known to modulate coagulation and inflammation systemically, were identified as a novel target for DF. Accordingly, DF inhibits Toll-like receptor ligand-dependent dendritic cells activation by a mechanism that is blocked by adenosine receptor antagonist (8-p-sulfophenyltheophylline) but not reproduced by synthetic poly-A, -C, -T, and -G. These results imply that aptameric sequences and adenosine receptor mediate dendritic cells responses to the drug. DF also prevents rosetting formation, red blood cells invasion by P. falciparum and abolishes oocysts development in Anopheles gambiae. In a murine model of cerebral malaria, DF affected parasitemia, decreased IFN-gamma levels, and ameliorated clinical score (day 5) with a trend for increased survival. Conclusion-Therapeutic use of DF in malaria is proposed. (Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2012; 32:786-798.)

Amazonian malaria: Asymptomatic human reservoirs, diagnostic challenges, environmentally driven changes in mosquito vector populations, and the mandate for sustainable control strategies

Across the Americas and the Caribbean, nearly 561,000 slide-confirmed malaria infections were reported officially in 2008. The nine Amazonian countries accounted for 89% of these infections; Brazil and Peru alone contributed 56% and 7% of them, respectively. Local populations of the relatively neglected parasite Plasmodium vivax, which currently accounts for 77% of the regional malaria burden, are extremely diverse genetically and geographically structured. At a time when malaria elimination is placed on the public health agenda of several endemic countries, it remains unclear why malaria proved so difficult to control in areas of relatively low levels of transmission such as the Amazon Basin. We hypothesize that asymptomatic parasite carriage and massive environmental changes that affect vector abundance and behavior are major contributors to malaria transmission in epidemiologically diverse areas across the Amazon Basin. Here we review available data supporting this hypothesis and discuss their implications for current and future malaria intervention policies in the region. Given that locally generated scientific evidence is urgently required to support malaria control interventions in Amazonia, we briefly describe the aims of our current field-oriented malaria research in rural villages and gold-mining enclaves in Peru and a recently opened agricultural settlement in Brazil. (C) 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

The sialotranscriptome of Antricola delacruzi female ticks is compatible with non-hematophagous behavior and an alternative source of food

The hosts for Antricola delacruzi ticks are insectivorous, cave-dwelling bats on which only larvae are found. The mouthparts of nymphal and adult A. delacruzi are compatible with scavenging feeding because the hypostome is small and toothless. How a single blood meal of a larva provides energy for several molts as well as for oviposition by females is not known. Adults of A. delacruzi possibly feed upon an unknown food source in bat guano, a substrate on which nymphal and adult stages are always found. Guano produced by insectivorous bats contains twice the amount of protein and 60 times the amount of iron as beef. In addition, bacteria and chitin-rich fungi proliferate on guano. Comparative data on the transcriptome of the salivary glands of A. delacruzi is nonexistent and would help to understand the physiological adaptations of salivary glands that accompany different sources of food as well as the steps taken by the Acari toward haematophagy, believed to have evolved from scavenging dead animals. Annotation of the transcriptome of salivary glands from female instars of A. delacruzi collected on guano categorized 5.7% of the clusters of expressed genes as putative secreted proteins. They included abundantly expressed TIL-domain-containing proteins (possible anti-microbials), an abundantly expressed protein similar to a serum amyloid found in the sialotranscriptomes of Ornithodoros spp., a savignygrin, a family of mucin/peritrophin/cuticle-like proteins, anti-microbials and an HIV envelope-like glycoprotein also found in soft ticks. When comparing the transcriptome of A. delacruzi with those of blood-feeding female soft and hard ticks some notable differences were observed; they consisted of the following transcripts over- or under-represented or absent in the sialotranscriptome of A. delacruzi that may reflect its source of food: ferritin, mucins with chitin-binding domains and TIL-domain-containing proteins versus lipocalins, basic tail proteins, metalloproteases, glycine-rich proteins and Kunitz protease inhibitors, respectively. (C) 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Immune transcript variations among Aedes aegypti populations with distinct susceptibility to dengue virus serotype 2

The innate immune response of insects is one of the factors that may dictate their susceptibility to viral infection. Two immune signaling pathways, Toll and JAK-STAT, and the RNA interference (RNAi) pathway are involved in Aedes aegypti responses against dengue virus (DENV), however natural differences in these antiviral defenses among mosquito populations have not been studied. Here, two field Ae. aegypti populations from distinct ecological environments, one from Recife and the other from Petrolina (Brazil), and a laboratory strain were studied for their ability to replicate a primary isolate of dengue virus serotype 2 (DENV-2). Virus infectivity and replication were determined in insect tissues collected after viral exposure through reverse-transcription real time PCR (RT-PCR). The expression of a transcript representing these defense mechanisms (Toll, JAK-STAT and RNAi) in the midgut and fat body was studied with RTPCR to evaluate variations in innate immune mechanisms possibly employed against DENV. Analyses of infection rates indicated that the field populations were more susceptible to DENV-2 infection than the lab strain. There were distinct expression patterns among mosquito populations, in both control and infected insects. Moreover, lower expression of immune molecules in DENV-2-infected insects compared to controls was observed in the two field populations. These results suggest that natural variations in vector competence against DENV may be partly due to differences in mosquito defense mechanisms, and that the down-regulation of immune transcripts after viral infection depends on the insect strain. (C) 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Cloning and characterisation of a novel chromosome end repeat enriched with homopolymeric (dA)/(dT) DNA in Rhynchosciara americana (Diptera: Sciaridae)

Short tandem DNA repeats and telomerase compose the telomere structure in the vast majority of eukaryotic organisms. However, such a conserved organisation has not been found in dipterans. While telomeric DNA in Drosophila is composed of specific retrotransposons, complex terminal tandem repeats are present in chromosomes of Anopheles and chironomid species. In the sciarid Rhynchosciara americana, short repeats (16 and 22 bp long) tandemly arrayed seem to reach chromosome ends. Moreover, in situ hybridisation data using homopolymeric RNA probes suggested in this species the existence of a third putative chromosome end repeat enriched with (dA).(dT) homopolymers. In this work, chromosome micro-dissection and PCR primed by homopolymeric primers were employed to clone these repeats. Named T-14 and 93 % AT-rich, the repetitive unit is 14 bp long and appears organised in tandem arrays. It is localised in five non-centromeric ends and in four interstitial bands of R. americana chromosomes. To date, T-14 is the shortest repeat that has been characterised in chromosome ends of dipterans. As observed for short tandem repeats identified previously in chromosome ends of R. americana, the T-14 probe hybridised to bridges connecting non-homologous polytene chromosome ends, indicative of close association of T-14 repeats with the very end of the chromosomes. The results of this work suggest that R. americana represents an additional example of organism provided with more than one DNA sequence that is able to reach chromosome termini.

Mosquito (Diptera: Culicidae) assemblages associated with Nidularium and Vriesea bromeliads in Serra do Mar, Atlantic Forest, Brazil

Background: The most substantial and best preserved area of Atlantic Forest is within the biogeographical sub-region of Serra do Mar. The topographic complexity of the region creates a diverse array of microclimates, which can affect species distribution and diversity inside the forest. Given that Atlantic Forest includes highly heterogeneous environments, a diverse and medically important Culicidae assemblage, and possible species co-occurrence, we evaluated mosquito assemblages from bromeliad phytotelmata in Serra do Mar (southeastern Brazil). Methods: Larvae and pupae were collected monthly from Nidularium and Vriesea bromeliads between July 2008 and June 2009. Collection sites were divided into landscape categories (lowland, hillslope and hilltop) based on elevation and slope. Correlations between bromeliad mosquito assemblage and environmental variables were assessed using multivariate redundancy analysis. Differences in species diversity between bromeliads within each category of elevation were explored using the Renyi diversity index. Univariate binary logistic regression analyses were used to assess species co-occurrence. Results: A total of 2,024 mosquitoes belonging to 22 species were collected. Landscape categories (pseudo-F value = 1.89, p = 0.04), bromeliad water volume (pseudo-F = 2.99, p = 0.03) and bromeliad fullness (Pseudo-F = 4.47, p < 0.01) influenced mosquito assemblage structure. Renyi diversity index show that lowland possesses the highest diversity indices. The presence of An. homunculus was associated with Cx. ocellatus and the presence of An. cruzii was associated with Cx. neglectus, Cx. inimitabilis fuscatus and Cx. worontzowi. Anopheles cruzii and An. homunculus were taken from the same bromeliad, however, the co-occurrence between those two species was not statistically significant. Conclusions: One of the main findings of our study was that differences in species among mosquito assemblages were influenced by landscape characteristics. The bromeliad factor that influenced mosquito abundance and assemblage structure was fullness. The findings of the current study raise important questions about the role of An. homunculus in the transmission of Plasmodium in Serra do Mar, southeastern Atlantic Forest.

Mosquitoes in degraded and preserved areas of the Atlantic Forest and potential for vector-borne disease risk in the municipality of Sao Paulo, Brazil

In order to assess the epidemiological potential of the Culicidae species in remaining areas of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest, specimens of this family were collected in wild and anthropic environments. A total of 9,403 adult mosquitoes was collected from May, 2009 to June, 2010. The most prevalent among species collected in the wild environment were Anopheles (Kerteszia) cruzii, the Melanoconion section of Culex (Melanoconion), and Aedes serratus, while the most common in the anthropic site were Coquillettidia chrysonotum/albifera, Culex (Culex) Coronator group, and An. (Ker.) cruzii. Mosquito richness was similar between environments, although the abundance of individuals from different species varied. When comparing diversity patterns between environments, anthropic sites exhibited higher richness and evenness, suggesting that environmental stress increased the number of favorable niches for culicids, promoting diversity. Increased abundance of opportunistic species in the anthropic environment enhances contact with culicids that transmit vector-borne diseases.

Segmental dataset and whole body expression data do not support the hypothesis that non-random movement is an intrinsic property of Drosophila retrogenes

Background: Several studies in Drosophila have shown excessive movement of retrogenes from the X chromosome to autosomes, and that these genes are frequently expressed in the testis. This phenomenon has led to several hypotheses invoking natural selection as the process driving male-biased genes to the autosomes. Metta and Schlotterer (BMC Evol Biol 2010, 10:114) analyzed a set of retrogenes where the parental gene has been subsequently lost. They assumed that this class of retrogenes replaced the ancestral functions of the parental gene, and reported that these retrogenes, although mostly originating from movement out of the X chromosome, showed female-biased or unbiased expression. These observations led the authors to suggest that selective forces (such as meiotic sex chromosome inactivation and sexual antagonism) were not responsible for the observed pattern of retrogene movement out of the X chromosome. Results: We reanalyzed the dataset published by Metta and Schlotterer and found several issues that led us to a different conclusion. In particular, Metta and Schlotterer used a dataset combined with expression data in which significant sex-biased expression is not detectable. First, the authors used a segmental dataset where the genes selected for analysis were less testis-biased in expression than those that were excluded from the study. Second, sex-biased expression was defined by comparing male and female whole-body data and not the expression of these genes in gonadal tissues. This approach significantly reduces the probability of detecting sex-biased expressed genes, which explains why the vast majority of the genes analyzed (parental and retrogenes) were equally expressed in both males and females. Third, the female-biased expression observed by Metta and Schltterer is mostly found for parental genes located on the X chromosome, which is known to be enriched with genes with female-biased expression. Fourth, using additional gonad expression data, we found that autosomal genes analyzed by Metta and Schlotterer are less up regulated in ovaries and have higher chance to be expressed in meiotic cells of spermatogenesis when compared to X-linked genes. Conclusions: The criteria used to select retrogenes and the sex-biased expression data based on whole adult flies generated a segmental dataset of female-biased and unbiased expressed genes that was unable to detect the higher propensity of autosomal retrogenes to be expressed in males. Thus, there is no support for the authors' view that the movement of new retrogenes, which originated from X-linked parental genes, was not driven by selection. Therefore, selection-based genetic models remain the most parsimonious explanations for the observed chromosomal distribution of retrogenes.

The use of Open Reading frame ESTs (ORESTES) for analysis of the honey bee transcriptome

Abstract Background The ongoing efforts to sequence the honey bee genome require additional initiatives to define its transcriptome. Towards this end, we employed the Open Reading frame ESTs (ORESTES) strategy to generate profiles for the life cycle of Apis mellifera workers. Results Of the 5,021 ORESTES, 35.2% matched with previously deposited Apis ESTs. The analysis of the remaining sequences defined a set of putative orthologs whose majority had their best-match hits with Anopheles and Drosophila genes. CAP3 assembly of the Apis ORESTES with the already existing 15,500 Apis ESTs generated 3,408 contigs. BLASTX comparison of these contigs with protein sets of organisms representing distinct phylogenetic clades revealed a total of 1,629 contigs that Apis mellifera shares with different taxa. Most (41%) represent genes that are in common to all taxa, another 21% are shared between metazoans (Bilateria), and 16% are shared only within the Insecta clade. A set of 23 putative genes presented a best match with human genes, many of which encode factors related to cell signaling/signal transduction. 1,779 contigs (52%) did not match any known sequence. Applying a correction factor deduced from a parallel analysis performed with Drosophila melanogaster ORESTES, we estimate that approximately half of these no-match ESTs contigs (22%) should represent Apis-specific genes. Conclusions The versatile and cost-efficient ORESTES approach produced minilibraries for honey bee life cycle stages. Such information on central gene regions contributes to genome annotation and also lends itself to cross-transcriptome comparisons to reveal evolutionary trends in insect genomes.

Natural infection in anopheline species and its implications for autochthonous malaria in the Atlantic forest in Brazil

Abstract Background A descriptive study was carried out in an area of the Atlantic Forest with autochthonous malaria in the Parelheiros subdistrict on the periphery of the municipality of São Paulo to identify anopheline fauna and anophelines naturally infected with Plasmodium as well as to discuss their role in this peculiar epidemiological context. Methods Entomological captures were made from May 2009 to April 2011 using Shannon traps and automatic CDC traps in four areas chosen for their different patterns of human presence and incidences of malaria (anthropic zone 1, anthropic zone 2, transition zone and sylvatic zone). Natural Plasmodium infection was detected by nested PCR based on amplification of the 18S rRNA gene. Results In total, 6,073 anophelines were collected from May 2009 to April 2011, and six species were identified in the four zones. Anopheles cruzii was the predominant species in the three environments but was more abundant in the sylvatic zone. Anopheles (Kerteszia) cruzii specimens from the anthropic and sylvatic zones were positive for P. vivax and P. malariae. An. (Ker.) bellator, An. (Nys.) triannulatus, An. (Nys.) strodei, An. (Nys.) lutzi and An. (Ano) maculipes were found in small numbers. Of these, An. (Nys.) triannulatus and An. (Nys.) lutzi, which were collected in the anthropic zone, were naturally infected with P. vivax while An. (Nys.) triannulatus from the anthropic zones and An. (Nys.) strodei from the transition zone were positive for P. malariae. Conclusion These results confirm that Anopheles (Kerteszia) cruzii plays an important role as a major Plasmodium vector. However, the finding of other naturally infected species may indicate that secondary vectors are also involved in the transmission of malaria in the study areas. These findings can be expected to help in the implementation of new measures to control autochthonous malaria in areas of the Atlantic Forest.

Impiego di Ciclopoidi (Crustacea, Copepoda) come agenti di lotta biologica contro le zanzare (Diptera, Culicidae)

Da 25 anni la letteratura scientifica internazionale riporta studi su varie specie di microcrostacei copepodi ciclopoidi dei generi Macrocyclops, Megacyclops e Mesocyclops predatori di larve di 1a e 2a età di culicidi. Si tratta di prove di predazione in laboratorio e in pieno campo, in diverse aree del pianeta nessuna delle quali riguarda l’Italia o il resto d’Europa, contro principalmente Aedes aegypti (L.), Ae. albopictus (Skuse) e altre specie del genere Anopheles e Culex. L’allevamento massale di copepodi ciclopoidi appare praticabile e questo, assieme alle buone prestazioni predatorie, rende tali ausiliari candidati assai interessanti contro le due principali specie di zanzare, Culex pipiens L. e Ae. albpopictus, che nelle aree urbane e periurbane italiane riescono a sfruttare raccolte d’acqua artificiali di volume variabile e a regime idrico periodico o permanente. Pertanto lo scopo dello studio è stato quello di arrivare a selezionare una o più specie di copepodi candidati per la lotta biologica e valutarne la possibilità applicativa nell’ambito dei programmi di controllo delle zanzare nocive dell’ambiente urbano. L’argomento del tutto nuovo per il nostro paese, è stato sviluppato attraverso varie fasi ciascuna delle quali propedeutica a quella successiva. •Indagine faunistica nell’area di pianura e costiera sulle specie di ciclopoidi associate a varie tipologie di raccolte d’acqua naturali e artificiali (fossi, scoline, canali, risaie e pozze temporanee). I campionamenti sono stati condotti con l’obiettivo di ottenere le specie di maggiori dimensioni (≥1 mm) in ristagni con diverse caratteristiche in termini di qualità dell’acqua e complessità biocenotica. •Prove preliminari di predazione in laboratorio con alcune specie rinvenute negli ambienti campionati, nei confronti delle larve di Ae. albopictus e Cx. pipiens. Le prestazioni di predazione sono state testate sottoponendo ai copepodi larve giovani di zanzare provenienti da allevamento e calcolato il numero giornaliero di larve attaccate. •Implementazione di un allevamento pilota della specie valutata più interessante, Macrocyclops albidus (Jurine) (Cyclopoida, Cyclopidae, Eucyclopinae), per i risultati ottenuti in laboratorio in termini di numero di larve predate/giorno e per le caratteristiche biologiche confacenti agli ambienti potenzialmente adatti ai lanci. Questa parte della ricerca è stata guidata dalla finalità di mettere a punto una tecnica di allevamento in scala in modo da disporre di stock di copepodi dalla primavera, nonchè da criteri di economicità nell’impianto e nella sua gestione. •Prove di efficacia in condizioni di semicampo e di campo in raccolte d’acqua normalmente colonizzate dai culicidi in ambito urbano: bidoni per lo stoccaggio di acqua per l’irrigazione degli orti e tombini stradali. In questo caso l’obiettivo principale è stato quello di ottenere dati sull’efficienza del controllo di M. albidus nei confronti della popolazione culicidica selvatica e sulla capacità del copepode di colonizzare stabilmente tali tipologie di focolai larvali. Risultati e conclusioni Indagine faunistica e prove di predazione in laboratorio L’indagine faunistica condotta nell’area costiera ferrarese, in quella ravennate e della pianura bolognese ha portato al rinvenimento di varie specie di ciclopoidi mantenuti in laboratorio per la conduzione delle prove di predazione. Le specie testate sono state: Acanthocyclops robustus (G. O. Sars), Macrocyclops albidus (Jurine), Thermocyclops crassus (Fischer), Megacyclops gigas (Claus). La scelta delle specie da testare è stata basata sulla loro abbondanza e frequenza di ritrovamento nei campionamenti nonché sulle loro dimensioni. Ciascuna prova è stata condotta sottoponendo a un singolo copepode, oppure a gruppi di 3 e di 5 esemplari, 50 larve di 1a età all’interno di contenitori cilindrici in plastica con 40 ml di acqua di acquedotto declorata e una piccola quantità di cibo per le larve di zanzara. Ciascuna combinazione “copepode/i + larve di Ae. albopictus”, è stata replicata 3-4 volte, e confrontata con un testimone (50 larve di Ae. albopictus senza copepodi). A 24 e 48 ore sono state registrate le larve sopravvissute. Soltanto per M. albidus il test di predazione è stato condotto anche verso Cx. pipiens. Messa a punto della tecnica di allevamento La ricerca è proseguita concentrando l’interesse su M. albidus, che oltre ad aver mostrato la capacità di predare a 24 ore quasi 30 larve di Ae. albopictus e di Cx. pipiens, dalla bibliografia risulta tollerare ampi valori di temperatura, di pH e alte concentrazioni di vari inquinanti. Dalla ricerca bibliografica è risultato che i ciclopoidi sono facilmente allevabili in contenitori di varia dimensione e foggia somministrando agli stadi di preadulto alghe unicellulari (Chlorella, Chilomonas), protozoi ciliati (Paramecium, Euplotes), rotiferi e cladoceri. Ciò presuppone colture e allevamenti in purezza di tali microrganismi mantenuti in parallelo, da utilizzare come inoculo e da aggiungere periodicamente nell’acqua di allevamento dei ciclopoidi. Nel caso di utilizzo di protozoi ciliati, occorre garantirne lo sviluppo che avviene a carico di flora batterica spontanea a sua volta cresciuta su di un substrato organico quale latte, cariossidi bollite di grano o soia, foglie di lattuga, paglia di riso bollita con cibo secco per pesci, lievito di birra. Per evitare il notevole impegno organizzativo e di manodopera nonché il rischio continuo di perdere la purezza della colonia degli organismi da utilizzare come cibo, le prove comparative di allevamento hanno portato ad un protocollo semplice ed sufficientemente efficiente in termini di copepodi ottenibili. Il sistema messo a punto si basa sull’utilizzo di una popolazione mista di ciliati e rotiferi, mantenuti nell'acqua di allevamento dei copepodi mediante la somministrazione periodica di cibo standard e pronto all’uso costituito da cibo secco per gatti. Prova di efficacia in bidoni da 220 l di capacità La predazione è stata studiata nel biennio 2007-2008 in bidoni da 220 l di capacità inoculati una sola volta in aprile 2007 con 100 e 500 esemplari di M. albidus/bidone e disposti all’aperto per la libera ovideposizione della popolazione culicidica selvatica. L’infestazione preimmaginale culicidica veniva campionata ogni due settimane fino ad ottobre, mediante un retino immanicato a maglia fitta e confrontata con quella dei bidoni testimone (senza copepodi). Nel 2007 il tasso di riduzione medio delle infestazioni di Ae. albopictus nei bidoni con copepodi, rispetto al testimone, è del 99,90% e del 100,00% rispettivamente alle dosi iniziali di inoculo di 100 e 500 copepodi/bidone; per Cx. pipiens L. tale percentuale media è risultata di 88,69% e di 84,65%. Similmente, nel 2008 si è osservato ad entrambe le dosi iniziali di inoculo una riduzione di Ae. albopictus del 100,00% e di Cx. pipiens del 73,3%. La dose di inoculo di 100 copepodi per contenitore è risultata sufficiente a garantire un rapido incremento numerico della popolazione che ha raggiunto la massima densità in agosto-settembre e un eccellente controllo delle popolazioni di Ae. albopictus. Prova di efficacia in campo in serbatoi per l’acqua irrigua degli orti La prova è stata condotta a partire dalla metà di agosto 2008 interessando 15 serbatoi di varia foggia e capacità, variabile tra 200 e 600 l, utilizzati per stoccare acqua orti famigliari nel comune di Crevalcore (BO). Ai proprietari dei serbatoi era chiesto di gestire il prelievo dell’acqua e i rifornimenti come da abitudine con l’unica raccomandazione di non svuotarli mai completamente. In 8 contenitori sono stati immessi 100 esemplari di M.albidus e una compressa larvicida a base di Bacillus thuringiensis var. israelensis (B.t.i.); nei restanti 7 è stata soltanto immessa la compressa di B.t.i.. Il campionamento larvale è stato settimanale fino agli inizi di ottobre. Dopo l’introduzione in tutti i serbatoi sono stati ritrovati esemplari di copepodi, nonostante il volume di acqua misurato settimanalmente sia variato da pochi litri, in qualche bidone, fino a valori della massima capacità, per effetto del prelievo e dell’apporto dell’acqua da parte dei gestori degli orti. In post-trattamento sono state osservate differenze significative tra le densità larvali nelle due tesi solo al 22 settembre per Ae.albopictus Tuttavia in termini percentuali la riduzione media di larve di 3a-4a età e pupe nei bidoni con copepodi, rispetto al testimone, è stata de 95,86% per Ae. albopictus e del 73,30% per Cx. pipiens. Prova di efficacia in tombini stradali Sono state condotte due prove in due differenti località, interessando 20 tombini (Marano di Castenaso in provincia di Bologna nel 2007) e 145 tombini (San Carlo in provincia di Ferrara nel 2008), quest’ultimi sottoposti a spurgo e pulizia completa nei precedenti 6 mesi l’inizio della prova. L’introduzione dei copepodi nei tombini è stata fatta all’inizio di luglio nella prova di Marano di Castenaso e alla fine di aprile e giugno in quelli di San Carlo, a dosi di 100 e 50 copepodi/tombino. Prima dell’introduzione dei copepodi e successivamente ogni 2 settimane per due mesi, in ogni tombino veniva campionata la presenza culicidica e dei copepodi con dipper immanicato. Nel 2007 dopo l’introduzione dei copepodi e per tutto il periodo di studio, mediamente soltanto nel 77% dei tombini i copepodi sono sopravvissuti. Nel periodo di prova le precipitazioni sono state scarse e la causa della rarefazione dei copepodi fino alla loro scomparsa in parte dei tombini è pertanto da ricercare non nell’eventuale dilavamento da parte della pioggia, quanto dalle caratteristiche chimico-fisiche dell’acqua. Tra queste innanzitutto la concentrazione di ossigeno che è sempre stata molto bassa (0÷1,03 mg/l) per tutta la durata del periodo di studio. Inoltre, a questo fattore probabilmente è da aggiungere l’accumulo, a concentrazioni tossiche per M. albidus, di composti organici e chimici dalla degradazione e fermentazione dell’abbondante materiale vegetale (soprattutto foglie) in condizioni di ipossia o anossia. Nel 2008, dopo il primo inoculo di M. albidus la percentuale di tombini che al campionamento presentano copepodi decresce in modo brusco fino a raggiungere il 6% a 2 mesi dall’introduzione dei copepodi. Dopo 40 giorni dalla seconda introduzione, la percentuale di tombini con copepodi è del 6,7%. Nell’esperienza 2008 è le intense precipitazioni hanno avuto probabilmente un ruolo determinante sul mantenimento dei copepodi nei tombini. Nel periodo della prova infatti le piogge sono state frequenti con rovesci in varie occasioni di forte intensità per un totale di 342 mm. Sotto questi livelli di pioggia i tombini sono stati sottoposti a un continuo e probabilmente completo dilavamento che potrebbe aver impedito la colonizzazione stabile dei copepodi. Tuttavia non si osservano influenze significative della pioggia nella riduzione percentuale dei tombini colonizzati da copepodi e ciò fa propendere all’ipotesi che assieme alla pioggia siano anche le caratteristiche fisico-chimiche dell’acqua a impedire una colonizzazione stabile da parte di M. albidus. In definitiva perciò si è dimostrato che i tombini stradali sono ambienti ostili per la sopravvivenza di M. albidus, anche se, dove il ciclopoide si è stabilito permanentemente, ha dimostrato un certo impatto nei confronti di Ae. albopictus e di Cx. pipiens, che tuttavia è risultato non statisticamente significativo all’analisi della varianza. Nei confronti delle larve di Culex pipiens il copepode non permette livelli di controllo soddisfacente, confermando i dati bibliografici. Nei confronti invece di Ae. albopictus la predazione raggiunge buoni livelli; tuttavia ciò non è compensato dalla percentuale molto alta di tombini che, dopo periodi di pioggia copiosa o singoli episodi temporaleschi o per le condizioni di anossia rimangono senza i copepodi. Ciò costringerebbe a ripetute introduzioni di copepodi i cui costi attualmente non sono inferiori a quelli per trattamenti con prodotti larvicidi. In conclusione la ricerca ha portato a considerare Macrocyclops albidus un interessante ausiliario applicabile anche nelle realtà urbane del nostro paese nell’ambito di programmi integrati di contrasto alle infestazioni di Aedes albopictus. Tuttavia il suo utilizzo non si presta a tutti i focolai larvali ma soltanto a raccolte di acqua artificiali di un certo volume come i bidoni utilizzati per stoccare acqua da impiegare per l’orto e il giardino familiare nelle situazioni in cui non è garantita la copertura ermetica, lo svuotamento completo settimanale o l’utilizzo di sostanze ad azione larvozanzaricida.

Hostile takeover by Plasmodium: reorganization of parasite and host cell membranes during liver stage egress

The protozoan parasite Plasmodium is transmitted by female Anopheles mosquitoes and undergoes obligatory development within a parasitophorous vacuole in hepatocytes before it is released into the bloodstream. The transition to the blood stage was previously shown to involve the packaging of exoerythrocytic merozoites into membrane-surrounded vesicles, called merosomes, which are delivered directly into liver sinusoids. However, it was unclear whether the membrane of these merosomes was derived from the parasite membrane, the parasitophorous vacuole membrane or the host cell membrane. This knowledge is required to determine how phagocytes will be directed against merosomes. Here, we fluorescently label the candidate membranes and use live cell imaging to show that the merosome membrane derives from the host cell membrane. We also demonstrate that proteins in the host cell membrane are lost during merozoite liberation from the parasitophorous vacuole. Immediately after the breakdown of the parasitophorous vacuole membrane, the host cell mitochondria begin to degenerate and protein biosynthesis arrests. The intact host cell plasma membrane surrounding merosomes allows Plasmodium to mask itself from the host immune system and bypass the numerous Kupffer cells on its way into the bloodstream. This represents an effective strategy for evading host defenses before establishing a blood stage infection.

Long-term live imaging reveals cytosolic immune responses of host hepatocytes against Plasmodium infection and parasite escape mechanisms

Plasmodium parasites are transmitted by Anopheles mosquitoes to the mammalian host and actively infect hepatocytes after passive transport in the bloodstream to the liver. In their target host hepatocyte, parasites reside within a parasitophorous vacuole (PV). In the present study it was shown that the parasitophorous vacuole membrane (PVM) can be targeted by autophagy marker proteins LC3, ubiquitin, and SQSTM1/p62 as well as by lysosomes in a process resembling selective autophagy. The dynamics of autophagy marker proteins in individual Plasmodium berghei-infected hepatocytes were followed by live imaging throughout the entire development of the parasite in the liver. Although the host cell very efficiently recognized the invading parasite in its vacuole, the majority of parasites survived this initial attack. Successful parasite development correlated with the gradual loss of all analyzed autophagy marker proteins and associated lysosomes from the PVM. However, other autophagic events like nonselective canonical autophagy in the host cell continued. This was indicated as LC3, although not labeling the PVM anymore, still localized to autophagosomes in the infected host cell. It appears that growing parasites even benefit from this form of nonselective host cell autophagy as an additional source of nutrients, as in host cells deficient for autophagy, parasite growth was retarded and could partly be rescued by the supply of additional amino acid in the medium. Importantly, mouse infections with P. berghei sporozoites confirmed LC3 dynamics, the positive effect of autophagy activation on parasite growth, and negative effects upon autophagy inhibition.