Consensus statement on the investigation and management of non-radiographic axial spondyloarthritis (nr-axSpA)

Aim Non-radiographic axial spondyloarthritis (nr-axSpA) is axial inflammatory arthritis where plain radiographic damage is not evident. An unknown proportion of these patients will progress to ankylosing spondylitis (AS). The increasing recognition of nr-axSpA has been greatly assisted by the widespread use of magnetic resonance imaging. The aim of this article was to construct a set of consensus statements based on a literature review to guide investigation and promote best management of nr-axSpA. Methods A literature review using Medline was conducted covering the major investigation modalities and treatment options available. A group of rheumatologists and a radiologist with expertise in investigation and management of SpA reviewed the literature and formulated a set of consensus statements. The Grade system encompassing the level of evidence and strength of recommendation was used. The opinion of a patient with nr-axSpA and a nurse experienced in the care of SpA patients was also sought and included. Results The literature review found few studies specifically addressing nr-axSpA, or if these patients were included, their results were often not separately reported. Fourteen consensus statements covering investigation and management of nr-axSpA were formulated. The level of agreement was high and ranged from 8.1 to 9.8. Treatment recommendations vary little with established AS, but this is primarily due to the lack of available evidence on the specific treatment of nr-axSpA. Conclusion The consensus statements aim to improve the diagnosis and management of nr-axSpA. We aim to raise awareness of this condition by the public and doctors and promote appropriate investigation and management.

Planning, development and management of sustainable cities: A commentary from the guest editors

Cities are the most dramatic manifestations of human activities on the surface of the earth. These human-dominated organisms—i.e., cities—degrade natural habitats, simplify species composition, disrupt hydrological systems, and modify energy flow and nutrient cycling. Today, these consequential impacts of human activities, originated from population increase, rapid urbanization, high private motor vehicle dependency, deregulated industrialization and mass livestock production, are increasing exponentially and causing great deal of environmental, social, and economic challenges both at global and local scales. In such a situation, establishment of sustainable cities, through sustainable urban development practices, is seen as a potential panacea to combat these challenges responsibly, effectively, and efficiently. This paper offers a critical review of the key literature on the issues relating to planning, development and management of sustainable cities, introduces the contributions from the Special Issue, and speculates on the prospective research directions to place necessary mechanisms to secure a sustainable urban future for all.

Emerging henipaviruses and flying foxes - Conservation and management perspectives

Wildlife populations are affected by a series of emerging diseases, some of which pose a significant threat to their conservation. They can also be reservoirs of pathogens that threaten domestic animal and human health. In this paper, we review the ecology of two viruses that have caused significant disease in domestic animals and humans and are carried by wild fruit bats in Asia and Australia. The first, Hendra virus, has caused disease in horses and/or humans in Australia every five years since it first emerged in 1994. Nipah virus has caused a major outbreak of disease in pigs and humans in Malaysia in the late 1990s and has also caused human mortalities in Bangladesh annually since 2001. Increased knowledge of fruit bat population dynamics and disease ecology will help improve our understanding of processes driving the emergence of diseases from bats. For this, a transdisciplinary approach is required to develop appropriate host management strategies that both maximise the conservation of bat populations as well as minimise the risk of disease outbreaks in domestic animals and humans.

Fishery biology and management of Protonibea diacanthus (Sciaenidae) aggregations in far Northern Cape York Peninsula waters

The sciaenid Protonibea diacanthus is a large, long-lived predatory fish of inshore northern Australian waters, which forms annual aggregations that are fished extensively by traditional (subsistence) and recreational fishers. There are now widespread concerns that the resource is being overexploited. Indigenous fishers of the Cape York Northern Peninsula Area (NPA) relate that large adult fish (up to 1500 mm total length (TL)) made up the bulk of the catch from the sciaenid aggregations until about 1994. In contrast, sexually mature P. diacanthus comprised only a small component (12 fish out of 270=4.4%) examined in a 1999–2000 sampling programme that was biased towards the largest individuals available. At 790 mm TL, the minimum size at first maturity for female P. diacanthus in this study is much smaller than the 920 mm TL reported previously in Queensland waters. Developing ovaries were observed in specimens sampled from sciaenid aggregations which formed in NPA waters between May and September 2000. However, no fish with ripe or spent gonads were found in the study, so the current timing and location of the spawning season for P. diacanthus in the region remain unknown. Food items observed in the analysis of the diet of P. diacanthus from the NPA included a variety of teleosts and invertebrates. The range of animal taxa represented in the prey items support the description of an ‘opportunistic predator’ attributed to the species. In our sampling, the stomach contents of fish caught during the time of the aggregation events did not differ from those observed at other times of the year. A total of 114 P. diacanthus were tagged and released at aggregation sites during the study period, and 3 fish (2.6%) were subsequently recaptured. The low rate of tag returns from the wild stock tagging programme, both in this study (2.6%) and from recreational fisher tag/release programmes for the sciaenid elsewhere in Queensland (6.5%), were not explained by tag loss nor mortality, given the high retention rate of tags and the zero mortality seen in tank trials. In response to the biological findings from this study, indigenous community councils of the NPA imposed a 2-year fishing moratorium for P. diacanthus. Surveys at aggregation sites in 2002 and 2003 established that much larger fish (mean size 103.5 cm TL) were again present on the grounds, albeit in very low numbers. These recent preliminary results highlight the critical need for continued monitoring and management of the P. diacanthus fishery in the NPA, if prospects for resource recovery are to be realised. The NPA initiative has provided a rare opportunity to negotiate a co-management strategy, based on scientific data and traditional knowledge, for the recovery of a cultural and economically significant fished resource.

Sampling and management of Bemisia tabaci (Genn.) biotype B in Australian cotton

Data on seasonal population abundance of Bemisia tabaci biotype B (silverleaf whitefly (SLW)) in Australian cotton fields collected over four consecutive growing seasons (2002/2003-2005/2006) were used to develop and validate a multiple-threshold-based management and sampling plan. Non-linear growth trajectories estimated from the field sampling data were used as benchmarks to classify adult SLW field populations into six density-based management zones with associated control recommendations in the context of peak flowering and open boll crop growth stages. Control options based on application of insect growth regulators (IGRs) are recommended for high-density populations (>2 adults/leaf) whereas conventional (non-IGR) products are recommended for the control of low to moderate population densities. A computerised re-sampling program was used to develop and test a binomial sampling plan. Binomial models with thresholds of T=1, 2 and 3 adults/leaf were tested using the field abundance data. A binomial plan based on a tally threshold of T=2 adults/leaf and a minimum sample of 20 leaves at nodes 3, 4 or 5 below the terminal is recommended as the most parsimonious and practical sampling protocol for Australian cotton fields. A decision support guide with management zone boundaries expressed as binomial counts and control options appropriate for various SLW density situations is presented. Appropriate use of chemical insecticides and tactics for successful field control of whiteflies are discussed.

Global trade in ornamental fish from an Australian perspective: The case for revised import risk analysis and management strategies

Over 1 billion ornamental fish comprising more than 4000 freshwater and 1400 marine species are traded internationally each year, with 8-10 million imported into Australia alone. Compared to other commodities, the pathogens and disease translocation risks associated with this pattern of trade have been poorly documented. The aim of this study was to conduct an appraisal of the effectiveness of risk analysis and quarantine controls as they are applied according to the Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) agreement in Australia. Ornamental fish originate from about 100 countries and hazards are mostly unknown; since 2000 there have been 16-fold fewer scientific publications on ornamental fish disease compared to farmed fish disease, and 470 fewer compared to disease in terrestrial species (cattle). The import quarantine policies of a range of countries were reviewed and classified as stringent or non-stringent based on the levels of pre-border and border controls. Australia has a stringent policy which includes pre-border health certification and a mandatory quarantine period at border of 1-3 weeks in registered quarantine premises supervised by government quarantine staff. Despite these measures there have been many disease incursions as well as establishment of significant exotic viral, bacterial, fungal, protozoal and metazoan pathogens from ornamental fish in farmed native Australian fish and free-living introduced species. Recent examples include Megalocytivirus and Aeromonas salmonicida atypical strain. In 2006, there were 22 species of alien ornamental fish with established breeding populations in waterways in Australia and freshwater plants and molluscs have also been introduced, proving a direct transmission pathway for establishment of pathogens in native fish species. Australia's stringent quarantine policies for imported ornamental fish are based on import risk analysis under the SPS agreement but have not provided an acceptable level of protection (ALOP) consistent with government objectives to prevent introduction of pests and diseases, promote development of future aquaculture industries or maintain biodiversity. It is concluded that the risk analysis process described by the Office International des Epizooties under the SPS agreement cannot be used in a meaningful way for current patterns of ornamental fish trade. Transboundary disease incursions will continue and exotic pathogens will become established in new regions as a result of the ornamental fish trade, and this will be an international phenomenon. Ornamental fish represent a special case in live animal trade where OIE guidelines for risk analysis need to be revised. Alternatively, for countries such as Australia with implied very high ALOP, the number of species traded and the number of sources permitted need to be dramatically reduced to facilitate hazard identification, risk assessment and import quarantine controls. Lead papers of the eleventh symposium of the International Society for Veterinary Epidemiology and Economics (ISVEE), Cairns, Australia

Survey of weed flora and management relative to cropping practices in the north-eastern grain region of Australia

The main weeds and weed management practices undertaken in broad acre dryland cropping areas of north-eastern Australia have been identified. The information was collected in a comprehensive postal survey of both growers and agronomists from Dubbo in New South Wales (NSW) through to Clermont in central Queensland, where 237 surveys were returned. A very diverse weed flora of 105 weeds from 91 genera was identified for the three cropping zones within the region (central Queensland, southern Queensland and northern NSW). Twenty-three weeds were common to all cropping zones. The major common weeds were Sonchus oleraceus, Rapistrum rugosum, Echinochloa spp. and Urochloa panicoides. The main weeds were identified for both summer and winter fallows, and sorghum, wheat and chickpea crops for each of the zones, with some commonality as well as floral uniqueness recorded. More genera were recorded in the fallows than in crops, and those in summer fallows exceeded the number in winter. Across the region, weed management relied heavily on herbicides. In fallows, glyphosate and mixes with glyphosate were very common, although the importance of the glyphosate mix partner differed among the cropping zones. Use and importance of pre-emergence herbicides in-crop varied considerably among the zones. In wheat, more graminicides were used in northern NSW than in southern Queensland, and virtually none were used in central Queensland, reflecting the differences in winter grass weed flora across the region. Atrazine was the major herbicide used in sorghum, although metolachlor was also used predominantly in northern NSW. Fallow and inter-row cultivation were used more often in the southern areas of the region. Grazing of fallows was more prominent in northern NSW. High crop seeding rates were not commonly recorded indicating that growers are not using crop competition as a tool for weed management. Although many management practices were recorded overall, few growers were using integrated weed management, and herbicide resistance has been and continues to be an issue for the region.

Teledermatology: Its use in the detection and management of actinic keratosis

Teledermatology can profoundly improve access to medical services for those who may have limited access to dermatology due to workforce shortages, distance to providers, or limitations in their mobility. Two common ways of teledermatology are differentiated: life synchronous, where patient and doctor communicate directly, or store and forward asynchronous methods, where the patient and doctor provide and assess the medical information independently. Teledermatology has been tested for its safety, feasibility and accuracy for a number of dermatological conditions, including the early detection of skin cancer and is usually safe, feasible and accurate. Studies reported somewhat better results for synchronous than asynchronous methods, possibly because of loss of information if no direct patient doctor contact is feasible. However asynchronous methods are easier to organize, require less sophisticated technology and are more widely accessible, and are more convenient for both patients and doctors. No study to date focused solely on teledermatology of actinic keratosis, but such lesions are typically found during teledermatology examinations for other main target lesions. In studies where such results were reported, actinic keratoses seemed to be readily identifiable for teledermatologists and adequate management and treatment can be suggested within remote consultations.

The impacts and management of foxes Vulpes vulpes in Australia

1. The successful introduction of the red fox Vulpes vulpes into Australia in the 1870s has had dramatic and deleterious impacts on both native fauna and agricultural production. Historical accounts detail how the arrival of foxes in many areas coincided with the local demise of native fauna. Recent analyses suggest that native fauna can be successfully reintroduced to their former ranges only if foxes have been controlled, and several replicated removal experiments have confirmed that foxes are the major agents of extirpation of native fauna. Predation is the primary cause of losses, but competition and transmission of disease may be important for some species. 2. In agricultural landscapes, fox predation on lambs can cause losses of 1–30%; variation is due to flock size, health and management, as well as differences in the timing and duration of lambing and the density of foxes. 3. Fox control measures include trapping, shooting, den fumigation and exclusion fencing; baiting using the toxin 1080 is the most commonly employed method. Depending on the baiting strategy, habitat and area covered, baiting can reduce fox activity by 50–97%. We review patterns of baiting in a large sheep-grazing region in central New South Wales, and propose guidelines to increase landholder awareness of baiting strategies, to concentrate and coordinate bait use, and to maximize the cost-effectiveness of baiting programs. 4. The variable reduction in fox density within the baited area, together with the ability of the fox to recolonize rapidly, suggest that current baiting practices in eastern Australia are often ineffective, and that reforms are required. These might include increasing landholder awareness and involvement in group control programs, and the use of more efficient broadscale techniques, such as aerial baiting.

Adaptation and management of Australian buffalograss cultivars for shade and water conservation

Soft-leaf buffalo grass is increasing in popularity as an amenity turfgrass in Australia. This project was instigated to assess the adaptation of and establish management guidelines for its use in Australias vast array of growing environments. There is an extensive selection of soft-leaf buffalo grass cultivars throughout Australia and with the countrys changing climates from temperate in the south to tropical in the north not all cultivars are going to be adapted to all regions. The project evaluated 19 buffalo grass cultivars along with other warm-season grasses including green couch, kikuyu and sweet smother grass. The soft-leaf buffalo grasses were evaluated for their growth and adaptation in a number of regions throughout Australia including Western Australia, Victoria, ACT, NSW and Queensland. The growth habit of the individual cultivars was examined along with their level of shade tolerance, water use, herbicide tolerance, resistance to wear, response to nitrogen applications and growth potential in highly alkaline (pH) soils. The growth habit of the various cultivars currently commercially available in Australia differs considerably from the more robust type that spreads quicker and is thicker in appearance (Sir Walter, Kings Pride, Ned Kelly and Jabiru) to the dwarf types that are shorter and thinner in appearance (AusTine and AusDwarf). Soft-leaf buffalo grass types tested do not differ in water use when compared to old-style common buffalo grass. Thus, soft-leaf buffalo grasses, like other warm-season turfgrass species, are efficient in water use. These grasses also recover after periods of low water availability. Individual cultivar differences were not discernible. In high pH soils (i.e. on alkaline-side) some elements essential for plant growth (e.g. iron and manganese) may be deficient causing turfgrass to appear pale green, and visually unacceptable. When 14 soft-leaf buffalo grass genotypes were grown on a highly alkaline soil (pH 7.5-7.9), cultivars differed in leaf iron, but not in leaf manganese, concentrations. Nitrogen is critical to the production of quality turf. The methods for applying this essential element can be manipulated to minimise the maintenance inputs (mowing) during the peak growing period (summer). By applying the greatest proportion of the turfs total nitrogen requirements in early spring, peak summer growth can be reduced resulting in a corresponding reduction in mowing requirements. Soft-leaf buffalo grass cultivars are more shade and wear tolerant than other warm-season turfgrasses being used by homeowners. There are differences between the individual buffalo grass varieties however. The majority of types currently available would be classified as having moderate levels of shade tolerance and wear reasonably well with good recovery rates. The impact of wear in a shaded environment was not tested and there is a need to investigate this as this is a typical growing environment for many homeowners. The use of herbicides is required to maintain quality soft-leaf buffalo grass turf. The development of softer herbicides for other turfgrasses has seen an increase in their popularity. The buffalo grass cultivars currently available have shown varying levels of susceptibility to the chemicals tested. The majority of the cultivars evaluated have demonstrated low levels of phytotoxicity to the herbicides chlorsulfuron (Glean) and fluroxypyr (Starane and Comet). In general, soft leaf buffalo grasses are varied in their makeup and have demonstrated varying levels of tolerance/susceptibility/adaptation to the conditions they are grown under. Consequently, there is a need to choose the cultivar most suited to the environment it is expected to perform in and the management style it will be exposed to. Future work is required to assess how the structure of the different cultivars impacts on their capacity to tolerate wear, varying shade levels, water use and herbicide tolerance. The development of a growth model may provide the solution.

Control techniques and management strategies for the problematic Navua sedge (Cyperus aromaticus)

Navua sedge, a member of the Cyperaceae family, is an aggressive weed of pastures in Fiji, Sri Lanka, Malay Peninsula, Vanuatu, Samoa, Solomons, and Tahiti and is now a weed of pastures and roadsides in north Queensland, Australia. Primarily restricted to areas with an annual rainfall exceeding 2500 mm, Navua sedge is capable of forming dense stands smothering many tropical pasture species. Seventeen herbicides were field tested at three sites in north Queensland, with glyphosate, halosulfuron, hexazinone, imazapic, imazapyr, or MSMA the most effective for Navua sedge control. Environmental problems such as persistence in soil, lack of selectivity and movement off-site may occur using some herbicides at the predicted LC90 control level rates. A seasonality trial using halosulfuron (97.5 g ai/ha) gave better Navua sedge control (84%) spraying March to September than spraying at other times (50%). In a frequency trial, sequential glyphosate applications (2,160 g ae/ha) every two months was more effective for continued Navua sedge control (67%) than a single application of glyphosate (36%), though loss of ground cover would occur. In a management trial, single applications of glyphosate (2,160 to 3,570 g ae/ha) using either a rope wick, ground foliar spraying or a rotary rope wick gave 59 to 73% control, while other treatments (rotary hoe (3%), slashing (-13%) or crushing (-30%)) were less effective. In a second management trial, four monthly rotary wick applications were much more effective (98%) than four monthly crushing applications (42%). An effective management plan must include the application of regular herbicide treatments to eliminate Navua sedge seed being added to the soil seed bank. Treatments that result in seed burial, for example, discing are likely to prolong seed persistence and should be avoided. The sprouting activity of vegetative propagules and root fragmentation needs to also be considered when selecting control options.

Warm-season greens grass trial - Environmental and management guidelines suited for new and old cultivars

The Horticulture Australia funded project, Management Guidelines for Warm-Season Grasses in Australia (TU05001), has allowed a detailed greens grass study to take place and enabled researchers and superintendents to work together to collect meaningful data on a range of Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. x Cynodon transvaalensis Burtt-Davy (Cynodon hybrid) and Paspalum vaginatum O. Swartz (seashore paspalum) cultivars suitable for golf or lawn bowls use. The end result provides superintendents and greenkeepers with additional knowledge to accompany their skills in managing or upgrading their greens to produce a denser, smoother and faster putting or bowls surface. However, neither turfgrass selection nor finely tuned management program will overcome unrealistic expectations (especially in relation to usage), poor growing environments, or limitations due to improper construction techniques.

Establishment and management of salt-tolerant amenity grasses to reduce urban salinity effect

This project built upon the successful outcomes of a previous project (TU02005) by adding to the database of salt tolerance among warm season turfgrass cultivars, through further hydroponic screening trials. Hydroponic screening trials focussed on new cultivars or cultivars that were not possible to cover in the time available under TU02005, including: 11 new cultivars of Paspalum vaginatum; 13 cultivars of Cynodon dactylon; six cultivars of Stenotaphrum secundatum; one accession of Cynodon transvaalensis; 12 Cynodon dactylon x transvaalensis hybrids; two cultivars of Sporobolus virginicus; five cultivars of Zoysia japonica; one cultivar of Z. macrantha, one common form of Z. tenuifolia and one Z. japonica x tenuifolia hybrid. The relative salinity tolerance of different turfgrasses is quantified in terms of their growth response to increasing levels of salinity, often defined by the salt level that equates to a 50% reduction in shoot yield, or alternatively the threshold salinity. The most salt tolerant species in these trials were Sporobolus virginicus and Paspalum vaginatum, consistent with the findings from TU02005 (Loch, Poulter et al. 2006). Cynodon dactylon showed the largest range in threshold values with some cultivars highly sensitive to salt, while others were tolerant to levels approaching that of the more halophytic grasses. Coupled with the observational and anecdotal evidence of high drought tolerance, this species and other intermediately tolerant species provide options for site specific situations in which soil salinity is coupled with additional challenges such as shade and high traffic conditions. By recognising the fact that a salt tolerant grass is not the complete solution to salinity problems, this project has been able to further investigate sustainable long-term establishment and management practices that maximise the ability of the selected grass to survive and grow under a particular set of salinity and usage parameters. Salt-tolerant turf grasses with potential for special use situations were trialled under field conditions at three sites within the Gold Coast City Council, while three sites, established under TU02005 within the Redland City Council boundaries were monitored for continued grass survival. Several randomised block experiments within Gold Coast City were established to compare the health and longevity of seashore paspalum (Paspalum vaginatum), Manila grass (Zoysia matrella), as well as the more tolerant cultivars of other species like buffalo grass (Stenotaphrum secundatum) and green couch (Cynodon dactylon). Whilst scientific results were difficult to achieve in the field situation, where conditions cannot be controlled, these trials provided valuable observational evidence of the likely survival of these species. Alternatives to laying full sod such as sprigging were investigated, and were found to be more appropriate for areas of low traffic as the establishment time is greater. Trials under controlled and protected conditions successfully achieved a full cover of Paspalum vaginatum from sprigs in a 10 week time frame. Salt affected sites are often associated with poor soil structure. Part of the research investigated techniques for the alleviation of soil compaction frequently found on saline sites. Various methods of soil de-compaction were investigated on highly compacted heavy clay soil in Redlands City. It was found that the heavy duplex soil of marine clay sediments required the most aggressive of treatments in order to achieve limited short-term effects. Interestingly, a well constructed sports field showed a far greater and longer term response to de-compaction operations, highlighting the importance of appropriate construction in the successful establishment and management of turfgrasses on salt affected sites. Fertiliser trials in this project determined plant demand for nitrogen (N) to species level. This work produced data that can be used as a guide when fertilising, in order to produce optimal growth and quality in the major turf grass species used in public parkland. An experiment commenced during TU02005 and monitored further in this project, investigated six representative warm-season turfgrasses to determine the optimum maintenance requirements for fertiliser N in south-east Queensland. In doing so, we recognised that optimum level is also related to use and intensity of use, with high profile well-used parks requiring higher maintenance N than low profile parks where maintaining botanical composition at a lower level of turf quality might be acceptable. Kikuyu (Pennisetum clandestinum) seemed to require the greatest N input (300-400 kg N/ha/year), followed by the green couch (Cynodon dactylon) cultivars ‘Wintergreen’ and ‘FLoraTeX’ requiring approximately 300 kg N/ha/year for optimal condition and growth. ‘Sir Walter’ (Stenotaphrum secundatum) and ‘Sea Isle 1’ (Paspalum vaginatum) had a moderate requirement of approximately 200 kg/ha/year. ‘Aussiblue’ (Digitaria didactyla)maintained optimal growth and quality at 100-200 kg N/ha/year. A set of guidelines has been prepared to provide various options from the construction and establishment of new grounds, through to the remediation of existing parklands by supporting the growth of endemic grasses. They describe a best management process through which salt affected sites should be assessed, remediated and managed. These guidelines, or Best Management Practices, will be readily available to councils. Previously, some high salinity sites have been turfed several times over a number of years (and Council budgets) for a 100% failure record. By eliminating this budgetary waste through targeted workable solutions, local authorities will be more amenable to investing appropriate amounts into these areas. In some cases, this will lead to cost savings as well as resulting in better quality turf. In all cases, however, improved turf quality will be of benefit to ratepayers, directly through increased local use of open space in parks and sportsfields and indirectly by attracting tourists and other visitors to the region bringing associated economic benefits. At the same time, environmental degradation and erosion of soil in bare areas will be greatly reduced.

DAQ339A Pest and disease identification and management in herbs

The major objective is to produce an educational tool for growers and research/extension personnel to allow accurate identification of a range of pests and diseases encountered in herbs. To a lessor extent develop both a mechanism to manage beneficial insects in field crops pre-harvest and to identify some common seed borne diseases in herbs.