Intervalo hídrico ótimo de um latossolo vermelho distrófico, após o primeiro período de pastejo contínuo de brachiaria ruziziensis, em sistema integração lavoura-pecuária

O intervalo hídrico ótimo (IHO) destaca-se como um dos melhores indicadores da qualidade física do solo, sob sistemas intensivos de produção. O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar a qualidade física de um Latossolo Vermelho distrófico típico por meio do IHO, após três safras agrícolas de lavoura e o primeiro ano de sistema integração lavoura-pecuária, em Xambrê, noroeste do Paraná. O experimento foi implantado em blocos casualizados, com três repetições. Os tratamentos consistiram de quatro alturas de pastejo (0,10; 0,20; 0,30; e 0,40 m) e um tratamento testemunha sem pastejo. A braquiária (BRACHIARIA RUZIZIENSIS) foi semeada em março de 2010 e o pastejo contínuo de bovinos foi realizado durante 110 dias (março-setembro). Em outubro desse ano, coletaram-se 90 amostras de solo com cilindros metálicos (0,05 m de altura e 0,05 m de diâmetro) no centro das camadas de 0-0,10; 0,10-0,20; e 0,20-0,30 m. Essas amostras foram utilizadas para obter a curva de retenção de água, a curva de resistência do solo à penetração e a densidade do solo (Ds); a partir dessas, foi calculado o IHO e obtida a densidade crítica do solo (Dsc). Utilizaram-se os limites críticos de -80 hPa, para a capacidade de campo (θcc); -15.000 hPa, para o ponto de murcha permanente (θpmp); 2,5 MPa, para a resistência do solo à penetração (θrp); e 0,10 m³ m-3, para a porosidade de aeração (θpa). O IHO foi maior a 0-0,10 m e a RP foi o fator de maior limitação do IHO em todas as camadas, especialmente a 0,10-0,20 e 0,20-0,30 m. As Dsc decresceram em profundidade de 1,66; 1,64; e 1,62 Mg m-3, respectivamente, para as camadas de 0-0,10; 0,10-0,20; e 0,20-0,30 m. O manejo desse solo sob sistema integração lavoura-pecuária com altura de pastejo de 0,10 m apresentou a maior frequência de amostras de solo com Ds ≥ Dsc.

Análise da determinação da condutividade hidráulica do solo pelo método do perfil instantâneo

A condutividade hidráulica do solo K é uma propriedade que expressa a facilidade com que a água nele se movimenta; é importante para o manejo do solo, para a produção das culturas e para a preservação do solo e do ambiente. A determinação da condutividade hidráulica pode ser feita por métodos de laboratório e de campo; o primeiro, com maior controle das condições experimentais e, o segundo, com menor grau de perturbação no solo. Dentre os métodos de campo, o mais utilizado é o do perfil instantâneo, tanto o original como o modificado, em que se obtém teoricamente uma relação entre o conteúdo de água θ e o tempo de redistribuição t, supondo gradiente de potencial total igual a um. No intuito de realizar uma análise mais profunda desse método, foi desenvolvido um estudo com o objetivo de verificar a possibilidade de se obter uma relação do conteúdo de água no solo, em função do tempo de redistribuição sem a suposição da existência de gradiente de potencial total unitário. O estudo foi desenvolvido com dados de quatro solos e a validação da relação proposta foi realizada por comparação da função K(θ) obtida a partir dela com a alcançada tradicionalmente. Com base na análise dos resultados, pode-se concluir que a relação proposta entre θ e t para o método do perfil instantâneo apresentou-se válida e que o gradiente de potencial total pode influir tanto o parâmetro γ como o parâmetro K0 da equação K = K0 exp [γ (θ-θ0)], ajustada aos dados experimentais. No caso específico dos solos avaliados neste trabalho, o gradiente de potencial teve baixa influência no parâmetro γ, comparada à sua influência no parâmetro K0, levando à possibilidade de uso de um gradiente de potencial total médio para obtenção da função K(θ). Além disso, observou-se que o procedimento para o cálculo da densidade de fluxo a partir da curva da armazenagem em função do tempo de redistribuição da água é muito mais simples do que o procedimento original utilizado no método do perfil instantâneo.

Physical quality of an Oxisol after different periods of management systems

Management systems may lead to a loss of soil physical quality as a result of removal of the plant cover and excessive agricultural mechanization. The hypothesis of this study was that the soil aggregate stability, bulk density, macro- and microporosity, and the S index and saturated hydraulic conductivity may be used as indicators of the soil physical quality. The aim was to study the effects of different periods and managements on the physical attributes of a medium-textured Red Oxisol under soybean and corn for two growing seasons, and determine which layers are most susceptible to variations. A completely randomized experimental design was used with split plots (five treatments and four layers), with four replications. The treatments in 2008/09 consisted of: five years of no-tillage (NTS5), seven years of no-tillage (NTS7), nine years of no-tillage (NTS9), conventional tillage (CTS) and an adjacent area of native forest (NF). The treatments were extended for another year, identified in 2009/10 as: NTS6, NTS8, NTS10, CTS and NF. The soil layers 0-0.05, 0.05-0.10, 0.10-0.20 and 0.20-0.30 m were sampled. The highest S index values were observed in the treatment CTS in the 0-0.05 m layer (0.106) and the 0.05-0.10 m layer (0.099) in 2008/09, and in the 0-0.05 m layer (0.066) in 2009/10. This fact may be associated with soil turnover, resulting in high macroporosity in this treatment. In contrast, in the NTS, limiting macroporosity values were observed in some layers (below 0.10 m³ m-3). Highest aggregate stability as well as the highest saturated hydraulic conductivity (Kθ) values were observed in NF in relation to the other treatments. In 2009/10, the Kθ in NF differed only from NTS10. This study showed that the use of the S index alone cannot be recommended as an absolute indicator of the soil physical quality, even at values greater than 0.035.

Structural and magnetic characterization of maghemites prepared from Al-substituted magnetites

Synthetic aluminum-substituted maghemites were characterized by total chemical analysis, powder X-ray diffraction (XRD), Mössbauer spectroscopy (ME), and vibrating sample magnetometry (VSM). The aim was to determine the structural, magnetic, and hyperfine properties of γ-Fe2-xAl xO3 as the Al concentration is varied. The XRD results of the synthetic products were indexed exclusively as maghemite. Increasing Al for Fe substitution decreased the mean crystalline dimension and shifted all diffraction peaks to higher º2θ angles. The a0 dimension of the cubic unit cell decreased with increasing Al according to the equation a o = 0.8385 - 3.63 x 10-5 Al (R²= 0.94). Most Mössbauer spectra were composed of one sextet, but at the highest substitution rate of 142.5 mmol mol-1 Al, both a doublet and sextet were obtained at 300 K. All hyperfine parameters from the sub-spectra were consistent with high-spin Fe3+ (0.2 a 0.7 mms-1) and suggested a strong superparamagnetic component associated with the doublet. The magnetic hyperfine field of the sextets decreased with the amount of Al-substitution [Bhf (T) = 49.751 - 0.1202Al; R² = 0.94] while the linewidth increased linearly. The saturation magnetization also decreased with increasing isomorphous substitution.

Compactação do solo na integração soja-pecuária de leite em Latossolo argiloso com semeadura direta e escarificação

A compactação do solo pelo tráfego de animais é uma preocupação em sistemas integrados lavoura-pecuária. Com o objetivo de avaliar o efeito de diferentes sistemas de manejo do solo e pisoteio de animais sobre os atributos físico-hídricos do solo e o desenvolvimento e a produtividade da soja, este experimento foi instalado no ano de 2007, em um Latossolo Vermelho distrófico cultivado anteriormente por uma década, pelo sistema de plantio direto de grãos em consórcio com forrageira. Avaliou-se a influência do pisoteio dos animais sobre a densidade (Ds), macroporosidade (Ma), microporosidade (Mi), porosidade total (PT), resistência do solo à penetração (RP) e o conteúdo de água no solo (θ), bem como a emergência, a altura e a produtividade da soja. O delineamento experimental foi blocos ao acaso com três repetições, com os tratamentos semeadura direta de soja sem pastejo (SD/SP), semeadura direta com pastejo em aveia (SD/CP) e escarificado com pastejo (ESC/CP). As amostras foram coletadas nas camadas de 0,00-0,07; 0,07-0,15; e 0,20-0,30 m, em três épocas: antes do pastejo (agosto de 2007), pós-pastejo (dezembro de 2007) e pós-pastejo (outubro de 2008). Não houve efeito significativo do pastejo sobre a Ds e PT. Aos 140 dias após a semeadura da soja, a RP atingiu valores acima de 2 MPa na camada de 0,00-0,15 m, nos tratamentos SD/SP e SD/CP, mas não limitando o desenvolvimento da cultura. A escarificação do solo sob integração lavoura-pecuária em semeadura direta proporcionou condições físico-hídricas menos favoráveis ao desenvolvimento das plantas; a altura de planta no SD/SP foi maior do que nos tratamentos SD/CP e ESC/CP e a menor produtividade de grãos foi obtida com a escarificação do solo, em ano com déficit hídrico.

Estimation of water percolation by different methods using TDR

Detailed knowledge on water percolation into the soil in irrigated areas is fundamental for solving problems of drainage, pollution and the recharge of underground aquifers. The aim of this study was to evaluate the percolation estimated by time-domain-reflectometry (TDR) in a drainage lysimeter. We used Darcy's law with K(θ) functions determined by field and laboratory methods and by the change in water storage in the soil profile at 16 points of moisture measurement at different time intervals. A sandy clay soil was saturated and covered with plastic sheet to prevent evaporation and an internal drainage trial in a drainage lysimeter was installed. The relationship between the observed and estimated percolation values was evaluated by linear regression analysis. The results suggest that percolation in the field or laboratory can be estimated based on continuous monitoring with TDR, and at short time intervals, of the variations in soil water storage. The precision and accuracy of this approach are similar to those of the lysimeter and it has advantages over the other evaluated methods, of which the most relevant are the possibility of estimating percolation in short time intervals and exemption from the predetermination of soil hydraulic properties such as water retention and hydraulic conductivity. The estimates obtained by the Darcy-Buckingham equation for percolation levels using function K(θ) predicted by the method of Hillel et al. (1972) provided compatible water percolation estimates with those obtained in the lysimeter at time intervals greater than 1 h. The methods of Libardi et al. (1980), Sisson et al. (1980) and van Genuchten (1980) underestimated water percolation.

Método alternativo para quantificação do intervalo hídrico ótimo em laboratório

O intervalo hídrico ótimo (IHO) é definido pela amplitude do teor de água (θ) no solo em que são mínimas as limitações ao crescimento vegetal, associadas à disponibilidade de água, aeração e resistência do solo à penetração (RP). Em geral, a determinação do IHO exige equipamentos de elevado custo, sendo laboriosa a obtenção dos dados de retenção de água e RP. O uso de membranas de pressão e placas porosas de Richards exige longo tempo para definir a curva de retenção de água no solo (CRA) em função do tempo de equilíbrio hidráulico, o qual depende das dimensões da amostra, do tipo de solo e da pressão aplicada. Atualmente, há disponibilidade de equipamentos para determinar o potencial de água do solo (ψ) com rapidez e menor custo como tensiômetros e equipamentos psicrométricos. O objetivo deste trabalho foi quantificar o IHO a partir do secamento de amostras indeformadas de solo em estufa elétrica com ventilação de ar e temperatura de 40 ºC (tempos de secamento de 20, 40, 60, 80, 100, 120, 180, 240, 300, 360 e 420 min), com subsequentes medições de ψ, utilizando tensiômetro ou psicrômetro, e medidas de RP, usando um penetrômetro eletrônico com aquisição automatizada de dados. A CRA e a curva de resistência do solo à penetração (CRS) foram adequadamente descritas utilizando o método proposto, que permitiu obter dados de θ e de RP em 10 dias e possibilitou ajuste acurado dos dados para descrever o IHO e alcançar a densidade crítica do solo (Dsc).

Compared performance of penetrometers and effect of soil water content on penetration resistance measurements

Modern agriculture techniques have a great impact on crops and soil quality, especially by the increased machinery traffic and weight. Several devices have been developed for determining soil properties in the field, aimed at managing compacted areas. Penetrometry is a widely used technique; however, there are several types of penetrometers, which have different action modes that can affect the soil resistance measurement. The objective of this study was to compare the functionality of two penetrometry methods (manual and automated mode) in the field identification of compacted, highly mechanized sugarcane areas, considering the influence of soil water volumetric content (θ) on soil penetration resistance (PR). Three sugarcane fields on a Rhodic Eutrudrox were chosen, under a sequence of harvest systems: one manual harvest (1ManH), one mechanized harvest (1MH) and three mechanized harvests (3MH). The different degrees of mechanization were associated to cumulative compaction processes. An electronic penetrometer was used on PR measurements, so that the rod was introduced into the soil by hand (Manual) and by an electromechanical motor (Auto). The θ was measured in the field with a soil moisture sensor. Results showed an effect of θ on PR measurements and that regression models must be used to correct data before comparing harvesting systems. The rod introduction modes resulted in different mean PR values, where the "Manual" overestimated PR compared to the "Auto" mode at low θ.

Revisiting Field Capacity (FC): variation of definition of FC and its estimation from pedotransfer functions

Taking into account the nature of the hydrological processes involved in in situ measurement of Field Capacity (FC), this study proposes a variation of the definition of FC aiming not only at minimizing the inadequacies of its determination, but also at maintaining its original, practical meaning. Analysis of FC data for 22 Brazilian soils and additional FC data from the literature, all measured according to the proposed definition, which is based on a 48-h drainage time after infiltration by shallow ponding, indicates a weak dependency on the amount of infiltrated water, antecedent moisture level, soil morphology, and the level of the groundwater table, but a strong dependency on basic soil properties. The dependence on basic soil properties allowed determination of FC of the 22 soil profiles by pedotransfer functions (PTFs) using the input variables usually adopted in prediction of soil water retention. Among the input variables, soil moisture content θ (6 kPa) had the greatest impact. Indeed, a linear PTF based only on it resulted in an FC with a root mean squared residue less than 0.04 m³ m-3 for most soils individually. Such a PTF proved to be a better FC predictor than the traditional method of using moisture content at an arbitrary suction. Our FC data were compatible with an equivalent and broader USA database found in the literature, mainly for medium-texture soil samples. One reason for differences between FCs of the two data sets of fine-textured soils is due to their different drainage times. Thus, a standardized procedure for in situ determination of FC is recommended.

Estimation of field capacity from ring infiltrometer-drainage data

Field capacity (FC) is a parameter widely used in applied soil science. However, its in situ method of determination may be difficult to apply, generally because of the need of large supplies of water at the test sites. Ottoni Filho et al. (2014) proposed a standardized procedure for field determination of FC and showed that such in situ FC can be estimated by a linear pedotransfer function (PTF) based on volumetric soil water content at the matric potential of -6 kPa [θ(6)] for the same soils used in the present study. The objective of this study was to use soil moisture data below a double ring infiltrometer measured 48 h after the end of the infiltration test in order to develop PTFs for standard in situ FC. We found that such ring FC data were an average of 0.03 m³ m- 3 greater than standard FC values. The linear PTF that was developed for the ring FC data based only on θ(6) was nearly as accurate as the equivalent PTF reported by Ottoni Filho et al. (2014), which was developed for the standard FC data. The root mean squared residues of FC determined from both PTFs were about 0.02 m³ m- 3. The proposed method has the advantage of estimating the soil in situ FC using the water applied in the infiltration test.

Quantification of the least limiting water range in an oxisol using two methodological strategies

The least limiting water range (LLWR) has been used as an indicator of soil physical quality as it represents, in a single parameter, the soil physical properties directly linked to plant growth, with the exception of temperature. The usual procedure for obtaining the LLWR involves determination of the water retention curve (WRC) and the soil resistance to penetration curve (SRC) in soil samples with undisturbed structure in the laboratory. Determination of the WRC and SRC using field measurements (in situ ) is preferable, but requires appropriate instrumentation. The objective of this study was to determine the LLWR from the data collected for determination of WRC and SRC in situ using portable electronic instruments, and to compare those determinations with the ones made in the laboratory. Samples were taken from the 0.0-0.1 m layer of a Latossolo Vermelho distrófico (Oxisol). Two methods were used for quantification of the LLWR: the traditional, with measurements made in soil samples with undisturbed structure; and in situ , with measurements of water content (θ), soil water potential (Ψ), and soil resistance to penetration (SR) through the use of sensors. The in situ measurements of θ, Ψ and SR were taken over a period of four days of soil drying. At the same time, samples with undisturbed structure were collected for determination of bulk density (BD). Due to the limitations of measurement of Ψ by tensiometer, additional determinations of θ were made with a psychrometer (in the laboratory) at the Ψ of -1500 kPa. The results show that it is possible to determine the LLWR by the θ, Ψ and SR measurements using the suggested approach and instrumentation. The quality of fit of the SRC was similar in both strategies. In contrast, the θ and Ψ in situ measurements, associated with those measured with a psychrometer, produced a better WRC description. The estimates of the LLWR were similar in both methodological strategies. The quantification of LLWR in situ can be achieved in 10 % of the time required for the traditional method.

Cardiovascular risk factors attributable to obesity and overweight in Switzerland.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Obesity increases the risk for cardiovascular risk factors (CVRFs), including hypertension, dyslipidaemia and type 2 diabetes. In this study, we assessed the burden of overweight and obesity on CVRFs in Switzerland, using Swiss-specific population attributable fractions (PAFs). METHODS AND RESULTS: The number of cases of CVRFs that could have been prevented if the increase in overweight and obesity in Switzerland had been contained was estimated using gender-specific, age- and smoking-adjusted PAFs for overweight and obesity. PAFs were estimated from the Swiss Health Survey 2007 (self-reported) and the CoLaus study (measured) data. PAFs from self-reported were lower than from measured data. Using measured data, overweight and obesity contributed to 38% of hypertension cases in men (32% in women). In men, overweight had a larger impact than obesity (22.2% and 15.6%, respectively), while the opposite was observed for women (13.6% and 18.1%, respectively). In men, 37% of dyslipidaemia (30% in women) could be attributed to overweight and obesity; overweight had a higher contribution than obesity in both sexes. In men, 57% of type 2 diabetes (62% in women) was attributable to overweight and obesity; obesity had a larger impact than overweight in both sexes. Overall, approximately 27,000 cases of type 2 diabetes, 63,000 cases of high blood pressure and 37,000 cases of dyslipidaemia could have been avoided if overweight and obesity levels were maintained at 1992 levels. CONCLUSION: A large proportion of CVRFs is attributable to overweight and/or obesity and could have been prevented by containing the overweight/obesity epidemic.

EFFECTS OF COMPACTION DUE TO MACHINERY TRAFFIC ON SOIL PORE CONFIGURATION

Soil compaction has been recognized as a severe problem in mechanized agriculture and has an influence on many soil properties and processes. Yet, there are few studies on the long-term effects of soil compaction, and the development of soil compaction has been shown through a limited number of soil parameters. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the persistence of soil compaction effects (three traffic treatments: T0, without traffic; T3, three tractor passes; and T5, five tractor passes) on pore system configuration, through static and dynamic determinations; and to determine changes in soil pore orientation due to soil compaction through measurement of hydraulic conductivity of saturated soil in samples taken vertically and horizontally. Traffic led to persistent changes in all the dynamic indicators studied (saturated hydraulic conductivity, K0; effective macro- and mesoporosity, εma and εme), with significantly lower values of K0, εma, and εme in the T5 treatment. The static indicators of bulk density (BD), derived total porosity (TP), and total macroporosity (θma) did not vary significantly among the treatments. This means that machine traffic did not produce persistent changes on these variables after two years. However, the orientation of the soil pore system was modified by traffic. Even in T0, there were greater changes in K0 measured in the samples taken vertically than horizontally, which was more related to the presence of vertical biopores, and to isotropy of K0 in the treatments with machine traffic. Overall, the results showed that dynamic indicators are more sensitive to the effects of compaction and that, in the future, static indicators should not be used as compaction indicators without being complemented by dynamic indicators.