On the fine structure of oxygen distribution in surface water layers in the area between Iceland and Faroe Islands

During the international "Overflow-Expedition'' 1973 on R.V. "Meteor" oxygen concentrations in surface layers were measured in order to determine the oxygen gradients within the first two meters and to add some informations to the mechanisms of oxygen exchange at the air-sea interface. These investigations may be interesting also with regard to longterm- observations of the oxygen distribution in the Atlantic, especially the problem of the A.O.U. (apparent oxygen utilization) determination. To measure oxygen gradients a special sampler was built which is able to take water samples each 20 cm of the first 2 meters. These data were supplemented by further samples down to 150 m, taken by conventional water samplers, from which samples were also taken to measure N2/O2-relations. By comparing these relations with theoretical relations in air-saturated water the influence of biological production and consumption on the oxygen contents in water could be estimated. A simple glass apparatus was built to extract gas from the water samples, and hereafter the N2/O2-relations were determined by mass spectrometry. Most distributions of the oxygen anomaly show a negative oxygen balance which varies largely, probably due to strong mixing processes in the Iceland-Faroe ridge area. The distribution of surface oxygen saturation values are of two different types. The values of the stations 260, 262 and 270 stem from mixed water and show homogeneous supersaturations, as can be found instantly when whitecaps appear. The values of 9 other stations are from water, sampled during calm periods which has been mixed and supersaturated before. They show a decreasing oxygen saturation towards the sea surface and often undersaturation in the upper decimeters up to 98 % and even 91 %. So at the air-sea interface even less initial oxygen saturation than 100 % can be found after supersaturation during heavy weather periods.

How does contract design affect the uptake of microcredit among the ultra-poor? : experimental evidence from the river islands of Northern Bangladesh

Despite the professed claims of microcredit alleviating poverty, little is known about what kind of credit contract is suitable for extremely poor households, also called the ultra-poor. To fill this knowledge gap, we initiated a field experiment in the river islands of northern Bangladesh, where a substantial portion of dwellers could be categorized as ultra-poor due to cyclic floods. We randomly offered four types of loans to such dwellers: regular small cash loans with one-year maturity, large cash loans with three-year maturity both with and without a one-year grace period, and in-kind livestock loans with three-year maturity and a one-year grace period. We compared uptake rates as well as the determinants of uptake and found that the uptake rate is the lowest for the regular contract, followed by the in-kind contract. Contrary to prior belief, we also found that the microcredit demand by the ultra-poor is not necessarily small, and in particular the ultra-poor are significantly more likely to join a microcredit program than the moderately poor if a grace period with longer maturity is attached to a large amount of credit, irrespective of whether the credit is provided in cash or in kind. This paper provides evidence that a typical microcredit contract with one-year maturity and without a grace period is not attractive to the ultra-poor. Microfinance institutions may need to design better credit contracts to address the poor's needs.

On the monitoring of surface displacement in connection with volcano reactivation in Tenerife, Canary Islands, using space techniques

Geodetic volcano monitoring in Tenerife has mainly focused on the Las Cañadas Caldera, where a geodetic micronetwork and a levelling profile are located. A sensitivity test of this geodetic network showed that it should be extended to cover the whole island for volcano monitoring purposes. Furthermore, InSAR allowed detecting two unexpected movements that were beyond the scope of the traditional geodetic network. These two facts prompted us to design and observe a GPS network covering the whole of Tenerife that was monitored in August 2000. The results obtained were accurate to one centimetre, and confirm one of the deformations, although they were not definitive enough to confirm the second one. Furthermore, new cases of possible subsidence have been detected in areas where InSAR could not be used to measure deformation due to low coherence. A first modelling attempt has been made using a very simple model and its results seem to indicate that the deformation observed and the groundwater level variation in the island may be related. Future observations will be necessary for further validation and to study the time evolution of the displacements, carry out interpretation work using different types of data (gravity, gases, etc) and develop models that represent the island more closely. The results obtained are important because they might affect the geodetic volcano monitoring on the island, which will only be really useful if it is capable of distinguishing between displacements that might be linked to volcanic activity and those produced by other causes. One important result in this work is that a new geodetic monitoring system based on two complementary techniques, InSAR and GPS, has been set up on Tenerife island. This the first time that the whole surface of any of the volcanic Canary Islands has been covered with a single network for this purpose. This research has displayed the need for further similar studies in the Canary Islands, at least on the islands which pose a greater risk of volcanic reactivation, such as Lanzarote and La Palma, where InSAR techniques have been used already.

Morphology and distribution of volcanic bombs in Caldera Quemada de Arriba (Lanzarote, Canary Islands): implications for volcanic hazard analysis

Análisis del riesgo volcánico. We show the preliminary results of the study of 561 volcanic bombs ejected from a pyroclastic cone during the 1730-1736 Timanfaya eruption (Lanzarote, Canary Islands). This cone displays the highest concentration of big bombs (major axis higher than 1 m) of Timanfaya. More than 560 bombs have been studied to calculate their reach. The results suggest that bombs of 1t have a reach of 409 m, while bombs up to 28 t have a reach of 248 m. These data may be used to define a security area once a vent has been opened, but also to calculate other data such the initial velocity of ejection. The geomorphological analysis and the study of the deposits also contribute to better understand an undocumented episode of the Timanfaya eruption and also provide important data for volcanic bombs modeling for volcanic hazard analysis.

Assessing forest response-type diversity to natural disturbances in Peninsular Spain and the Balearic Islands = Evaluación de la diversidad de tipos de respuesta a perturbaciones naturales en la España peninsular e Islas Baleares

Disturbances shape forest ecosystems by influencing their composition, structure, and processes. In the Mediterranean Basin, changes in the disturbance regimes have been predicted to occur in the next future with a higher occurrence of extreme events of drought, wildfire, and – to a lesser extent – windstorm. Woody species are the main elements defining the structure and functioning of forest ecosystems. Recently, response-type diversity has been pointed out as an appropriate indicator of ecosystems resilience. For this, we have elaborated a complete response-trait database for the tree and shrubby species considered in the Third Spanish National Forest Inventory (3SNFI). In the database, the presence or absence of nine response traits associated to drought, fire, and wind were assigned to each species. The database reflected the lack of information about some important traits (in particular for shrubby species) and allowed to determine those traits most widely distributed. The information contained in the database was then used to assess a relative index of forest resilience to these disturbances calculated from the abundance of response traits and the species redundancy for each plot of the 3SNFI; considering both tree and shrubby species. In general, few plots showed high values of the resilience index, probably because some traits were scarcely presented in the species and also because most plots presented very few species. The cartographic representation of the index showed low values for the stands located in mountainous ranges, which are mostly composed by species typical from central Europe. In the other side, Eucalyptus plantations in Galicia appeared as one thee the most resilient ecosystems, due to its higher adaptive capacity to persist after the occurrence of drought, fire, and windstorm events. We conclude that the response traits database can constitute a useful tool for forest management and planning and for future research to enhance the forest resilience.

A common origin for woody Sonchus and five related genera in the Macaronesian islands: molecular evidence for extensive radiation.

Woody Sonchus and five related genera (Babcockia, Taeckholmia, Sventenia, Lactucosonchus, and Prenanthes) of the Macaronesian islands have been regarded as an outstanding example of adaptive radiation in angiosperms. Internal transcribed spacer region of the nuclear rDNA (ITS) sequences were used to demonstrate that, despite the extensive morphological and ecological diversity of the plants, the entire alliance in insular Macaronesia has a common origin. The sequence data place Lactucosonchus as sister group to the remainder of the alliance and also indicate that four related genera are in turn sister groups to subg. Dendrosonchus and Taeckholmia. This implies that the woody members of Sonchus were derived from an ancestor similar to allied genera now present on the Canary Islands. It is also evident that the alliance probably occurred in the Canary Islands during the late Miocene or early Pliocene. A rapid radiation of major lineages in the alliance is consistent with an unresolved polytomy near the base and low ITS sequence divergence. Increase of woodiness is concordant with other insular endemics and refutes the relictural nature of woody Sonchus in the Macaronesian islands.

Notebook on geography, navigation, mensuration, and other subjects, ca. 1723-1743

This heavily illustrated notebook contains entries on the following topics, among others: geography; mensuration; navigation and the history of navigation; "the use of Gunter's Scale in plain sailing;" compasses; quadrants and their use; "the refraction of the stars observed by the famous Tycho Brahe;" the latitude and longitude of coasts in America, Europe, and Africa; oceans and islands; mountains and "burning mountains" (volcanoes); rivers and lakes; forests and deserts; maps and sea charts; and the uses of geometry and other measurements by carpenters, joiners, painters, glaziers, masons, and bricklayers. Many pages contain navigational problems and their detailed solutions, as well as chronologies of global exploration and lists of all known rivers, mountains, and other geographic features across the world, many with vivid descriptions. The last pages of the notebook contain entries made in December of 1743 regarding celestial measurements Prince took in Stratford, Connecticut, where he was staying with his brother.

Shetland Islands, United Kingdom, Nautical Chart, 1788 (Raster Image)

This layer is a georeferenced raster image of the historic paper map entitled: A new hydrographical survey of the islands of Shetland : with many improvements and additions, and the sailing directions, by Captn. Thomas Preston. It was printed for Robert Sayer, chartseller No. 63 Fleet Street 1st. Jany., 1788. Scale [ca. 1:419,830].The image inside the map neatline is georeferenced to the surface of the earth and fit to the European Datum 1950, Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) Zone 30N projected coordinate system. All map collar and inset information is also available as part of the raster image, including any inset maps, profiles, statistical tables, directories, text, illustrations, index maps, legends, or other information associated with the principal map. This map shows features such as rocks, channels, points, ports, coves, islands, anchorage points, and more. Includes also selected land features such as towns and villages, drainage, selected buildings, and more. Relief shown by hachures; depths shown by soundings. Includes also profile views, navigational notes, and insets: Directions for Valey Sound -- The Isles of Feroe. This layer is part of a selection of digitally scanned and georeferenced historic maps from the Harvard Map Collection. These maps typically portray both natural and manmade features. The selection represents a range of originators, ground condition dates, scales, and map purposes.

Hawai'ian Islands, 1868 (Raster Image)

This layer is a georeferenced raster image of the historic paper map entitled: Wm. T. Brigham on Hawaiian volcanoes, G.W. Boynton, sc. Pl. 12 : Oahu. The Hawaiin group. It was published by the Boston Society of Natural History in [1868]. This dataset is georeferenced for the component map entitled: The Hawaiian group. Scale [ca. 1:4,500,000]. Covers the Hawai'ian Islands.The original map contains multiple maps on one sheet. Because the map images are non-contiguous and possibly at differing scales, each map image was georeferenced separately. Please see the 'cross references' section for other maps on this sheet.The image inside the map neatline is georeferenced to the surface of the earth and fit to the 'Mercator' projection. All map collar and inset information is also available as part of the raster image, including any inset maps, profiles, statistical tables, directories, text, illustrations, index maps, legends, or other information associated with the principal map. This map shows features such as volcanoes, shoreline features, islands and islets, and more. This layer is part of a selection of digitally scanned and georeferenced historic maps from the Harvard Map Collection and the Harvard University Library as part of the Open Collections Program at Harvard University project: Organizing Our World: Sponsored Exploration and Scientific Discovery in the Modern Age. Maps selected for the project correspond to various expeditions and represent a range of regions, originators, ground condition dates, scales, and purposes.

Pacific Coast of Mexico, Central America, and the Region Around the Galapagos Islands Showing Route of the Steamer Albatross, 1891 (Raster Image)

This layer is a georeferenced raster image of the historic paper map entitled: Explorations of the U. S. Fish Commission steamer Albatross : Lieut. Comdr. Z. L. Tanner U.S.N. Comdg. : Februrary to April 1891. It was printed for the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University in 1892. Scale [ca. 1:7,500,000]. Covers the Pacific Coast of Mexico, Central America, and the region around the Galapagos Islands. The image inside the map neatline is georeferenced to the surface of the earth and fit to the 'Mercator' projection. All map collar and inset information is also available as part of the raster image, including any inset maps, profiles, statistical tables, directories, text, illustrations, index maps, legends, or other information associated with the principal map. This map shows features such as drainage, human settlements, shoreline features, bays, harbors, islands, and more. Relief shown by soundings and bathymetric isolines and tints. Shows the route of the Agassiz-Albatross Cruise 1891. This layer is part of a selection of digitally scanned and georeferenced historic maps from the Harvard Map Collection and the Harvard University Library as part of the Open Collections Program at Harvard University project: Organizing Our World: Sponsored Exploration and Scientific Discovery in the Modern Age. Maps selected for the project correspond to various expeditions and represent a range of regions, originators, ground condition dates, scales, and purposes.

Galapagos Islands, Ecuador, 1891 (Raster Image)

This layer is a georeferenced raster image of the historic paper map entitled: Galapagos Islands : showing exploration of the U.S. Fish Commission steamer "Albatross" Lieut-Comdr. Z. L. Tanner U.S.N. Comdg. February to April 1891. It was printed for the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University, 1892. Scale [ca. 1:1,400,000]. Covers Galapagos Islands, Ecuador. The image inside the map neatline is georeferenced to the surface of the earth and fit to the 'Mercator' projection. All map collar and inset information is also available as part of the raster image, including any inset maps, profiles, statistical tables, directories, text, illustrations, index maps, legends, or other information associated with the principal map. This map shows shoreline features, islands and islets, bays, harbors, inlets, points, rocks, bottom types, and more. Relief shown by hachures and spot heights. Depths shown by soundings. Includes note on legend and source. This layer is part of a selection of digitally scanned and georeferenced historic maps from the Harvard Map Collection and the Harvard University Library as part of the Open Collections Program at Harvard University project: Organizing Our World: Sponsored Exploration and Scientific Discovery in the Modern Age. Maps selected for the project correspond to various expeditions and represent a range of regions, originators, ground condition dates, scales, and purposes.

Canary Islands, Spain, 1653 (Raster Image)

This layer is a georeferenced raster image of the historic paper map entitled: Les Isles Canariespar P. Du Val d'Abbeville, Geographe Ordinaire du Roy. It was published by chez Pierre Mariette, rue S. Jacque a l'Esperance, avec privilege in 1653. Scale [ca. 1:1,050,000]. Covers the Canary Islands, Spain. Map in French.The image inside the map neatline is georeferenced to the surface of the earth and fit to the World Mercator projected coordinate system. All map collar and inset information is also available as part of the raster image, including any inset maps, profiles, statistical tables, directories, text, illustrations, index maps, legends, or other information associated with the principal map. This map shows features such as drainage, villages and other human settlements, shoreline features, anchorage points, and more. Relief shown pictorially. Includes also notes.This layer is part of a selection of digitally scanned and georeferenced historic maps from the Harvard Map Collection. These maps typically portray both natural and manmade features. The selection represents a range of originators, ground condition dates, scales, and map purposes.

Isla de Fuerteventura, Canary Islands, Spain, 1779 (Raster Image)

This layer is a georeferenced raster image of the historic paper map entitled: Mapa de la isla de Fuerteventura, por Don Tomás Lopez, geografo de los dominios de S. M. de las Reales academias de la historia, de San Fernando, de la de buenas letras de Sevilla y de la Sociedad Bascongada de los amigos del pais. It was published by se hallará este con todas las obras del autor en la Calle de las Carretas entrando por la Plazuela del Angel in 1779. Scale [ca. 1:280,000]. Covers Isla de Fuerteventura, Canary Islands, Spain. Map in Spanish.The image inside the map neatline is georeferenced to the surface of the earth and fit to the World Mercator projected coordinate system. All map collar and inset information is also available as part of the raster image, including any inset maps, profiles, statistical tables, directories, text, illustrations, index maps, legends, or other information associated with the principal map. This map shows features such as drainage, villages and other human settlements, roads, shoreline features, ports and anchorage points, and more. Relief shown by hachures. Includes note on the mapping of Fuerteventura.This layer is part of a selection of digitally scanned and georeferenced historic maps from the Harvard Map Collection. These maps typically portray both natural and manmade features. The selection represents a range of originators, ground condition dates, scales, and map purposes.