Manuais e transversalidade da língua portuguesa na leitura: um estudo no ensino básico

Numa Sociedade do Conhecimento como a nossa, a leitura é de importância capital para o exercício efetivo da cidadania e a Escola é um dos espaços privilegiados para a formação de leitores competentes. Conhecido o deficiente domínio da compreensão leitora evidenciado pela população portuguesa em geral e pelos estudantes em particular, é necessário repensar as práticas pedagógico-didáticas associadas ao ensino e aprendizagem da compreensão na leitura e convertê-las em instrumentos de motivação para a leitura e de aquisição e desenvolvimento de competências neste domínio e não reduzi-la a uma mera aprendizagem escolar. Enquadrado pela evolução da epistemologia científica e pelo seu impacto no desenho atual da Didática de Línguas, este estudo visa contribuir para a implementação de um ensino/aprendizagem da língua portuguesa efetivamente direcionado para o desenvolvimento de competências transversais em compreensão na leitura. Para o fundamentar teoricamente e para melhor podermos analisar e problematizar os dados a recolher, procurámos compreender as características da sociedade atual e os desafios que lança à Escola, bem como as linhas de base da atual conceção de Educação e sua relação com os atuais contextos sociais. Refletimos também sobre o estatuto e papel da língua portuguesa no contexto do sistema de ensino português, a importância da compreensão na leitura numa abordagem transversal do ensino e da aprendizagem da língua portuguesa e o papel do manual escolar na motivação para a leitura e na aquisição e desenvolvimento de competências neste domínio. Através da análise de manuais de Língua Portuguesa para os três ciclos do Ensino Básico, procurámos determinar em que medida estes vão ao encontro das diretrizes que definem um ensino/aprendizagem da língua portuguesa orientado para o desenvolvimento de competências transversais em compreensão na leitura e definir princípios que possam contribuir para a sua transformação, tornando-os mais adequados à consecução desses objetivos. Os mesmos princípios poderão promover e fundamentar uma seleção mais criteriosa dos manuais a adotar. Do ponto de vista metodológico, estamos perante um estudo de natureza qualitativa. Recorremos à análise documental, como técnica de recolha de dados, e, para a levar a cabo, construímos uma grelha, tendo em conta os princípios definidos pela literatura da especialidade e as diretrizes propostas pela política educativa portuguesa para o desenvolvimento de competências transversais em compreensão na leitura. Para o tratamento dos dados, recorremos à análise de conteúdo. Os resultados obtidos demonstram que, de um modo geral, os projetos editoriais analisados promovem um paradigma de ensino da compreensão na leitura que condiciona a consciência, o sentido crítico e a criatividade dos sujeitos-leitores e que não dá resposta às expectativas sociais. Para que os manuais de Língua Portuguesa contribuam efetivamente para o desenvolvimento de competências transversais em compreensão na leitura, o seu ensino explícito não deve centrar-se só nos textos literários, nem na transmissão de interpretações consagradas destes, que os alunos têm de memorizar. Deverão antes apostar mais em estratégias didáticas concretizadas através de atividades que envolvam os alunos em situações de leitura mais próximas da vida quotidiana, em que estes possam desempenhar um papel mais ativo, assumir maior responsabilidade no seu próprio processo de aprendizagem e interagir com diversos tipos de textos, para assim adquirirem estratégias de leitura adequadas e saberem mobilizá-las e utilizálas de acordo com as circunstâncias concretas em questão.

The Axiomatic Approach to Population Ethics

This paper examines several families of population principles in the light of a set of axioms. In addition to the critical-level utilitarian, number-sensitive critical-level utilitarian and number-dampened families and their generalized counterparts, we consider the restricted number-dampened family (suggested by Hurka) and introduce two new families : the restricted critical-level and restricted number-dependent critical-level families. Subsets of the restricted families have nonnegative critical levels and avoid both the repugnant and sadistic conclusions but fail to satisfy an important independence condition. We defend the critical-level principles with positive critical levels.

The Measurement of Diversity

The notion of diversity is an issue that is of relevance in several contexts. For example, the biodiversity of a given ecological environment and the diversity of the options available to a decision maker have attracted some attention in recent research. This paper provides an axiomatic approach to the measurement of diversity. We characterize two nested classes of ordinal measures of diversity and an important member of these classes. We prove that the latter special case is equivalent to a diversity ordering proposed by Weitzman.

On Fixed-Path Rationing Methods.

Moulin (1999) characterizes the fixed-path rationing methods by efficiency, strategy-proofness, consistency, and resource-monotonicity. In this note, we give a straightforward proof of his result.

Multiple Public Goods and Lexicographic Preferences Replacement Principle.

We study the problem of locating two public goods for a group of agents with single-peaked preferences over an interval. An alternative specifies a location for each public good. In Miyagawa (1998), each agent consumes only his most preferred public good without rivalry. We extend preferences lexicographically and characterize the class of single-peaked preference rules by Pareto-optimality and replacement-domination. This result is considerably different from the corresponding characterization by Miyagawa (2001a).

Probabilistic Assignments of Identical Indivisible Objects and Uniform Probabilistic Rules.

We consider a probabilistic approach to the problem of assigning k indivisible identical objects to a set of agents with single-peaked preferences. Using the ordinal extension of preferences, we characterize the class of uniform probabilistic rules by Pareto efficiency, strategy-proofness, and no-envy. We also show that in this characterization no-envy cannot be replaced by anonymity. When agents are strictly risk averse von-Neumann-Morgenstern utility maximizers, then we reduce the problem of assigning k identical objects to a problem of allocating the amount k of an infinitely divisible commodity.

Responsibility and Cross-Subsidization in Cost Sharing

We propose two axiomatic theories of cost sharing with the common premise that agents demand comparable -though perhaps different- commodities and are responsible for their own demand. Under partial responsibility the agents are not responsible for the asymmetries of the cost function: two agents consuming the same amount of output always pay the same price; this holds true under full responsibility only if the cost function is symmetric in all individual demands. If the cost function is additively separable, each agent pays her stand alone cost under full responsibility; this holds true under partial responsibility only if, in addition, the cost function is symmetric. By generalizing Moulin and Shenker’s (1999) Distributivity axiom to cost-sharing methods for heterogeneous goods, we identify in each of our two theories a different serial method. The subsidy-free serial method (Moulin, 1995) is essentially the only distributive method meeting Ranking and Dummy. The cross-subsidizing serial method (Sprumont, 1998) is the only distributive method satisfying Separability and Strong Ranking. Finally, we propose an alternative characterization of the latter method based on a strengthening of Distributivity.

Population Ethics and the Value of Life

Public policies often involve choices of alternatives in which the size and the composition of the population may vary. Examples are the allocation of resources to prenatal care and the design of aid packages to developing countries. In order to assess the corresponding feasible choices on normative grounds, criteria for social evaluation that are capable of performing variable-population comparisons are required. We review several important axioms for welfarist population principles and discuss the link between individual well-being and the desirability of adding a new person to a given society.

Efficient Priority Rules

We study the assignment of indivisible objects with quotas (houses, jobs, or offices) to a set of agents (students, job applicants, or professors). Each agent receives at most one object and monetary compensations are not possible. We characterize efficient priority rules by efficiency, strategy-proofness, and reallocation-consistency. Such a rule respects an acyclical priority structure and the allocations can be determined using the deferred acceptance algorithm.

Resource-Monotonicity for House Allocation Problems

We study a simple model of assigning indivisible objects (e.g., houses, jobs, offices, etc.) to agents. Each agent receives at most one object and monetary compensations are not possible. We completely describe all rules satisfying efficiency and resource-monotonicity. The characterized rules assign the objects in a sequence of steps such that at each step there is either a dictator or two agents who “trade” objects from their hierarchically specified “endowments.”

Deprivation and Social Exclusion

Social exclusion manifests itself in the lack of an individual’s access to functionings as compared to other members of society. Thus, the concept is closely related to deprivation. We view deprivation as having two basic determinants: the lack of identification with other members of society and the aggregate alienation experienced by an agent with respect to those with fewer functioning failures. We use an axiomatic approach to characterize classes of deprivation and exclusion measures and apply some of them to EU data for the period from 1994 to 2000.

Anonymous Single-Profile Welfarism

This note reexamines the single-profile approach to social-choice theory. If an alternative is interpreted as a social state of affairs or a history of the world, it can be argued that a multi-profile approach is inappropriate because the information profile is determined by the set of alternatives. However, single-profile approaches are criticized because of the limitations they impose on the possibility of formulating properties such as anonymity. We suggest an alternative definition of anonymity that applies in a single-profile setting and characterize anonymous single-profile welfarism under a richness assumption.

Interpersonal Comparisons of Well-Being

This paper, which is to be published as a chapter in the Oxford Handbook of Political Economy, provides an introduction to social-choice theory with interpersonal comparisons of well-being. We argue that the most promising route of escape from the negative conclusion of Arrow’s theorem is to use a richer informational environment than ordinal measurability and the absence of interpersonal comparability of well-being. We discuss welfarist social evaluation (which requires that the levels of individual well-being in two alternatives are the only determinants of their social ranking) and present characterizations of some important social-evaluation orderings.

Aumann-Shapley Pricing : A Reconsideration of the Discrete Case

We reconsider the following cost-sharing problem: agent i = 1,...,n demands a quantity xi of good i; the corresponding total cost C(x1,...,xn) must be shared among the n agents. The Aumann-Shapley prices (p1,...,pn) are given by the Shapley value of the game where each unit of each good is regarded as a distinct player. The Aumann-Shapley cost-sharing method assigns the cost share pixi to agent i. When goods come in indivisible units, we show that this method is characterized by the two standard axioms of Additivity and Dummy, and the property of No Merging or Splitting: agents never find it profitable to split or merge their demands.

The Possibility of Ordering Infinite Utility Streams

This paper revisits Diamond’s classical impossibility result regarding the ordering of infinite utility streams. We show that if no representability condition is imposed, there do exist strongly Paretian and finitely anonymous orderings of intertemporal utility streams with attractive additional properties. We extend a possibility theorem due to Svensson to a characterization theorem and we provide characterizations of all strongly Paretian and finitely anonymous rankings satisfying the strict transfer principle. In addition, infinite horizon extensions of leximin and of utilitarianism are characterized by adding an equity preference axiom and finite translation-scale measurability, respectively, to strong Pareto and finite anonymity.