Chuva e banco de sementes do solo em diferentes sistemas de restauração ecológica da floresta estacional semidecidual

Pós-graduação em Ciência Florestal - FCA

Plant species decline due to abandonment of meadows cannot easily be reversed by mowing. A case study from the southern Alps

Abstract. We resumed mowing in two plots of ca. 100 m2 in an abandoned meadow dominated by Brachypodium pinnatum on the slope of Monte Generoso (Switzerland). We monitored species composition and hay yield using point quadrats and biomass samples. Species frequencies changed little during 10 yr (1988–1997) while hay yields showed large fluctuations according to mean relative humidity in April-June. We performed a seed-addition experiment to test whether the establishment of meadow species is limited by lack of diaspores or favourable microsites for germination and recruitment from the seed bank. We sowed ca. 12 000 seeds of 12 species originating from a nearby meadow individually in plots of a 4 × 6 unbalanced Latin square with four treatments, burning, mowing, mowing and removal of a layer of decayed organic matter, and a control. We monitored the fate of seedling individuals for 24 months. Seedlings of all species were established and survived for 12 months, 10 species survived during at least 24 months, some reached a reproductive stage. Species responded to different qualities of microsites provided by the different treatments thus required different regeneration niches. Spontaneous long-distance immigration was insignificant. We conclude that the former species composition of abandoned meadows cannot easily be restored by mowing alone because many plant species of meadows do not have persistent seed banks and immigration over distances of more than 25 m and successful establishment is very unlikely.

Ecología de la dispersión de plantas en los bosques secos del suroccidente Ecuatoriano

La importancia del proceso de dispersión de semillas en la estructura y dinámica de los ecosistemas es ampliamente reconocida. Sin embargo, para los bosques tropicales estacionalmente secos los estudios relacionados con este proceso son aún escasos y dispersos en comparación con los bosques tropicales lluviosos. En este trabajo se estudió la importancia de los síndromes de dispersión de semillas en la estructuración de comunidades, mediante el análisis de los patrones de dispersión de semillas en el espacio y tiempo para comunidades de leñosas en los bosques secos del suroccidente Ecuatoriano. Esta área forma parte de la región Tumbesina, una de las áreas de endemismo más importantes del mundo, pero también uno de los hotspots más amenazados. El clima se caracteriza por una estación seca que va de mayo a noviembre y una estación lluviosa que se extiende desde diciembre a abril. Para toda esta zona se estima una temperatura promedio anual entre 20° y 26°C y una precipitación promedio anual entre 300 y 700 mm. El trabajo de campo se desarrolló entre febrero de 2009 y septiembre de 2012. El primer paso fue la recopilación de información sobre las especies leñosas nativas de los bosques secos del suroccidente de Ecuador, que permitiera asignar a cada especie a un síndrome de dispersión para determinar el espectro de síndromes de dispersión de semillas. Luego, utilizando la información disponible de 109 parcelas establecidas previamente a lo largo de cuatro cantones de la provincia de Loja que conservan bosques secos en buen estado, se analizó la relación entre el síndrome de dispersión y condiciones ambientales. La relación de los síndromes de dispersión con los patrones espaciales de las especies y con los patrones de la lluvia y banco de semillas se estudió dentro de una parcela permanente de 9 ha, en la Reserva Ecológica Arenillas. Dentro de esta parcela se estableció un transecto de aproximadamente 3,4 km, que se recorrió mensualmente para colectar excretas de cérvidos y analizar el rol de este grupo como dispersor de semillas. Una gran variedad de plantas en los bosques secos tropicales del suroccidente de Ecuador requirió la asistencia de animales para la dispersión de semillas. Sin embargo, un análisis del espectro de dispersión considerando no solo la riqueza, sino también la abundancia relativa de especies, permitió determinar que a pesar de la alta variedad de especies zoócoras, la mayor parte de la comunidad correspondía a individuos anemócoros, que no proveen ninguna recompensa para la dispersión por animales. Este patrón puede deberse a la abundancia relativa de hábitats adecuados para especies con diferente síndrome de dispersión. Las condiciones ambientales afectaron la estructura del espectro de dispersión en la comunidad de bosque seco neotropical estudiada. El análisis de la importancia relativa del síndrome de dispersión y de la heterogeneidad espacial en la formación de patrones espaciales de árboles adultos permitió determinar que la heterogeneidad ambiental ejercía un efecto adicional (y en algunos el único) en la formación de patrones agregados de la mayoría de especies estudiadas. Los resultados señalaron diferencias en los patrones espaciales de las especies dependiendo del síndrome de dispersión, pero también una gran variación en los patrones espaciales incluso entre especies del mismo síndrome de dispersión. El análisis simultáneo de los patrones de la lluvia de semillas y banco de semillas de una comunidad de leñosas y su relación con la vegetación establecida indicaron que la lluvia de semillas era temporalmente variable en número de especies y abundancia de semillas, y dependía del síndrome de dispersión. El síndrome de dispersión también influyó en la formación de bancos de semillas, siendo las especies con capacidad de dispersión limitada (autócoras) las de mayor riqueza de especies y abundancia de semillas. Los cérvidos también se consideraron como un elemento clave en el proceso de dispersión de semillas. Al menos ocho especies leñosas fueron dispersadas legítimamente vía endozoócora. La mayoría de las especies dispersadas presentaron diásporas sin adaptaciones obvias para la dispersión, por lo que la ingestión de semillas por cérvidos se constituye en una vía potencial para la dispersión de sus semillas a largas distancias y, con ello, mejora la posibilidad de colonizar nuevos sitios y mantener el flujo genético. Los resultados de este estudio aportan nuevas evidencias para el entendimiento de la importancia de los procesos de dispersión de semillas en la estructura de los bosques secos neotropicales. Uno de los principales hallazgos a partir de estos cuatro capítulos es que los patrones espaciales de las especies, así como las estrategias que utilizan para dispersarse y hacer frente a las condiciones adversas (es decir, lluvia o banco de semillas) llevan consigo un efecto del síndrome de dispersión, y que la intensidad ese efecto depende a la vez de las condiciones ambientales del lugar. ABSTRACT The importance of seed dispersal process in the estructuring and ecosystem dynamic is widely recongnized. However, for seasonally tropical dry forest studies related to this process are still scarce and scattered compared to tropical rain forests. The present research deals with the importance of seed dispersal syndromes as a driver in the community structure, focusing its attention to temporal and spatial patterns of seed dispersal in woody communities of seasonally dry forest at Southwestern Ecuador. This area is part of the Tumbesian region, one of the most important areas of endemism, but also one of the most threatened areas around the world. Climate is characterized by a dry season from May to November, and a rainy season from December to April. For the whole area an average temperature between 20 ° and 26 ° C, and an average annual rainfall between 300 and 700 mm are estimated. Fieldwork was carried out between February 2009 and September 2012. During a first step information about native woody species of dry forests of southwestern Ecuador was gathered, enabling to assign a dispersal syndrome to each species to determine the seed dispersal spectrum. In a second step, available information from 109 established plots along four municipalities in Loja province, which hold the highest and best conserved dry forest remanants, was analyzed to establish the relationship between dispersal syndromes and environmental conditions. The relationships between dispersal syndromes and species spatial patterns; and between dispersal syndromes and seed rain and seed bank patterns, were studied within a permanent plot of 9 ha, in the Arenillas Ecological Reserve. Within this plot one transect of approximately 3.4 km was set to collect monthly deer droppings, which were used to latter analyze the rol of this group as seed dispersers. The results showed that a large variety of plants in tropical dry forest of Southwestern Ecuador require animal assistance to dispers their seeds. However, an analysis of seed dispersal spectrum considering not only species richness, but also the relative abundance of species, allowed to determine that despite the high variety of zoochorous species, most individuals in the community corresponds to anemochoruos species. This shift may be due to the relative abundance of habitats that are suitable for species with different dispersal syndromes. Moreover, quantitative data analysis showed that environmental conditions affect the structure of seed dispersal spectrum in the studied community. The analysis of relative importance of dispersal syndrome, and the environmental heterogeneity on formation of adult trees spatial patterns, indicated that environmental heterogeneity exert an additional (or was the only) effect limiting the distribution of most species in this forest. The findings showed differences in spatial patterns related to dispersal syndrome, but also showed a large variation in spatial patterns even among species sharing the same dispersal syndrome. Simultaneous analysis of seed rain and seed bank patterns of a woody community, and their relationship with established vegetation, suggested that seed rain is temporally variable in species number and seeds abundance, and that variation is related to the dispersal syndrome. Dispersal syndrome also influenced on the formation of seed banks, being species with limited dispersal abilities (autochorous) the ones with highest species richness and seed abundance. Deer were found as a key element in the seed dispersal process. At least to eight woody species were dispersed legitimately by ingestion. Diaspores of most dispersed species had no obvious adaptations to seed dispersal, therefore, seed ingestion by deer represents a potential pathway for long-distance dispersal, and hence, improves the chances to colonizing new sites and to maintain gene flow. Overall, these results provide new evidence for understanding the importance of seed dispersal processes in the structure of Neotropical dry forests. One of the major findings from these four chapters is that spatial patterns of species, and the strategies used to disperse their seeds and to deal with the adverse conditions (i.e. seed rain or seed bank) are related with dispersal syndromes, and the intensity of that relation depends in turn, on environmental conditions.

Optimal eradication: when to stop looking for an invasive plant

The notion of being sure that you have completely eradicated an invasive species is fanciful because of imperfect detection and persistent seed banks. Eradication is commonly declared either on an ad hoc basis, on notions of seed bank longevity, or on setting arbitrary thresholds of 1% or 5% confidence that the species is not present. Rather than declaring eradication at some arbitrary level of confidence, we take an economic approach in which we stop looking when the expected costs outweigh the expected benefits. We develop theory that determines the number of years of absent surveys required to minimize the net expected cost. Given detection of a species is imperfect, the optimal stopping time is a trade-off between the cost of continued surveying and the cost of escape and damage if eradication is declared too soon. A simple rule of thumb compares well to the exact optimal solution using stochastic dynamic programming. Application of the approach to the eradication programme of Helenium amarum reveals that the actual stopping time was a precautionary one given the ranges for each parameter.

Parthenium weed: a potential major weed for agro-ecosystems in Pakistan

Parthenium weed (Parthenium hysterophorus L.) is a new and potentially major weed in Pakistan. This weed, originating from central America, is now a major weed in many regions of the world including Eastern Africa, India, parts of South East Asia and Australia. Presumably its recent arrival in Pakistan has been due to its movement from India, but this has yet to be established. In Australia it has been present for about 50 years, in which time it has spread from isolated infestations to establish core populations in central Queensland with scattered and isolated plants occurring south into New South Wales and north-west into the Northern Territory. Its spread in Pakistan is likely to be much more rapid, but lessons learnt in Australia will be of great value for weed managers in Pakistan. This annual herb has the potential to spread to all medium rainfall rangeland, dairy and summer cropping areas in Pakistan. In Australia its main effect is upon livestock production, but it is also causing health concerns in regional communities. However, in India it has also had a significant impact in cropping systems. To help coordinate actions on its management in Australia, a National Weeds Program has created a Parthenium Weed Management Group (PWMG) and under this group a Parthenium Weed Research Group (PWRG) has been formed. Funding coming from this national program and other sources has supported the PWRG to undertake a collaborative and technology exchange research program in two main areas: 1) biology and ecology and 2) management; while the PWMG has focused on community awareness and the production of various extension and management packages. Research in the area of biology and ecology has included studies on the evaluation of competitive plants to displace parthenium weed, the use of process-based simulation models to monitor and predict future spread and abundance under present and future climate conditions, the effect of the weed on human health and the ecology of its seed bank. Management research has focussed on the development of biological control approaches using plant-feeding insects and pathogens. The effectiveness of biological control is also being monitored through long term studies on seed bank size and dynamics. The use of fire as another potential management tool is also being evaluated. In addition to this important research, an effort has also been made to spread the most important findings and management outcomes to the wider community through an extension and education program driven by the PWMG. These developments within Australia, in parthenium weed management, will be of great help to P

ICT to enhance the triangle of life : the soil, the seed, and the life-giver farmer

This paper reports on the outcomes of an ICT enabled social sustainability project “Green Lanka1” trialled in the Wilgamuwa village, which is situated in the Dambulla district of Sri Lanka. The main goals of the project were focused towards the provision of information about market prices, transportation options, agricultural decision support and modern agriculture practices of the farmer communities to improve their livelihood with the effective use of technologies. The project used Web and Mobile (SMS) enabled systems. The Green Lanka project was sponsored by the Information Communication Technology Agency (ICTA) of Sri Lanka under the Institutional Capacity Building Programme (ICBP) grant scheme which was sponsored by the World Bank. Six hundred families in Wilgamuwa village participated in the project activities. The project was designed, executed and studied through an Action Research approach. The lessons learned through the project activities provide an important understanding of the complex interaction between different stakeholders in the process of implementation of ICT enabled solutions within digitally divided societies. The paper analyses the processes used to reduce the resistance to change and improved involvement of farmer communities in ICT enabled projects. It also analyses the interaction between stakeholders involved in design and implementation of the project activities to improve the chances of project success.

Soil type does not affect seed ageing when soil water potential and temperature are controlled

To investigate the effects of soil type on seed persistence in a manner that controlled for location and climate variables, three weed species—Gomphocarpus physocarpus (swan plant), Avena sterilis ssp. ludoviciana (wild oat) and Ligustrum lucidum (broadleaf privet)—were buried for 21 months in three contrasting soils at a single location. Soil type had a significant effect on seed persistence and seedling vigour, but soil water content and temperature varied between soils due to differences in physical and chemical properties. Warmer, wetter conditions favoured shorter persistence. A laboratory-based test was developed to accelerate the rate of seed ageing within soils, using controlled superoptimal temperature and moisture conditions (the soil-specific accelerated ageing test, SSAAT). The SSAAT demonstrated that soil type per se did not influence seed longevity. Moreover, the order in which seeds aged was the same whether aged in the field or SSAAT, with L. lucidum being shortest-lived and A. sterilis being longest-lived of the three species.

The identification, distribution and persistence of oxamyl and its degradation products in planted corn seed, seedling root and soil from oxamyl-treated corn seeds

A simple method was developed for treating corn seeds with oxamyl. It involved soaking the seeds to ensure oxamyl uptake, centrifugation to draw off excess solution, and drying under a stream of air to prevent the formation of fungus. The seeds were found to have an even distribution of oxamyl. Seeds remained fungus-free even 12 months after treatment. The highest nonphytotoxic treatment level was obtained by using a 4.00 mg/mL oxamyl solution. Extraction methods for the determination of oxamyl (methyl-N'N'-dimethyl-N-[(methylcarbamoyl)oxy]-l-thiooxamimidate), its oxime (methyl-N',N'-dimethyl-N-hydroxy-1-thiooxamimidate), and DMCF (N,N-dimethyl-1-cyanoformanade) in seed" root, and soil were developed. Seeds were processed by homogenizing, then shaking in methanol. Significantly more oxamyl was extracted from hydrated seeds as opposed to dry seeds. Soils were extracted by tumbling in methanol; recoveries range~ from 86 - 87% for oxamyl. Root was extracted to 93% efficiency for oxamyl by homogenizing the tissue in methanol. NucharAttaclay column cleanup afforded suitable extracts for analysis by RP-HPLC on a C18 column and UV detection at 254 nm. In the degradation study, oxamyl was found to dissipate from the seed down into the soil. It was also detected in the root. Oxime was detected in both the seed and soil, but not in the root. DMCF was detected in small amounts only in the seed.

Hay strewing, brush harvesting of seed and soil disturbance as tools for the enhancement of botanical diversity in grasslands

Since the middle of the last century agricultural intensification within Europe has led to a drastic decline in the extent of botanically diverse grasslands. Whilst measures to enhance the diversity of agriculturally-improved grasslands are in place, success has often been limited. One of the primary factors limiting success is the paucity of sources of propagules of desirable species in the surrounding landscape. The restoration of two contrasting grassland types lowland hay meadow and chalk grassland) was examined using a replicated block experiment to assess the effectiveness of two methods of seed application (hay strewing and brush harvesting) and two methods of pre-treatment disturbance (power harrowing and turf stripping). The resulting changes in botanical composition were monitored for 4 years. Seed addition by both methods resulted in significant temporal trends in plant species composition and increases in plant species richness, which were further enhanced by disturbance. Power harrowing increased the effectiveness of the seed addition treatments at the lowland hay meadow site. At the chalk grassland site a more severe disturbance created by turf stripping was used and shown to be preferable. Whilst both hay strewing and brush harvesting increased plant species richness, hay strewing was more effective at creating a sward similar to that of the donor site. Soil disturbance and seed application rate at the recipient site and timing of the hay cut at the donor site are all factors to be considered prior to the commencement of restoration management. (c) 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

ICT to enhance the triangle of life : the soil, the seed, and the life-giver farmer

This paper reports on the outcomes of an ICT enabled social sustainability project “Green Lanka1” trialled in the Wilgamuwa village, which is situated in the Dambulla district of Sri Lanka. The main goals of the project were focused towards the provision of information about market prices, transportation options, agricultural decision support and modern agriculture practices of the farmer communities to improve their livelihood with the effective use of technologies. The project used Web and Mobile (SMS) enabled systems. The Green Lanka project was sponsored by the Information Communication Technology Agency (ICTA) of Sri Lanka under the Institutional Capacity Building Programme (ICBP) grant scheme which was sponsored by the World Bank. Six hundred families in Wilgamuwa village participated in the project activities. The project was designed, executed and studied through an Action Research approach. The lessons learned through the project activities provide an important understanding of the complex interaction between different stakeholders in the process of implementation of ICT enabled solutions within digitally divided societies. The paper analyses the processes used to reduce the resistance to change and improved involvement of farmer communities in ICT enabled projects. It also analyses the interaction between stakeholders involved in design and implementation of the project activities to improve the chances of project success.

The influence of the caruncle on the germination of castor seed under high salinity or low soil water content

The caruncle is a structure present in the micropylar region of Euphorbiaceae seeds. This structure has the ecological function of promoting seed dispersal by ants (myrmecochory), but it is debated whether it also has an agronomical importance influencing seed germination. The influence of the caruncle on castor (Ricinus communis) seed germination was evaluated under low soil water content and high soil salinity. Seeds were germinated at soil water storage capacities varying from 22 to 50% and salinities (NaCl) varying from 0 to 10 dS m(-1) The germination (%) increased following the increments in soil moisture. hut the caruncle had no influence on this process at any moisture level. In one genotype. more root dry mass was produced when caruncle was excised. Increasing salinity reduced the percentage and speed of germination of castor seeds, but no influence of caruncle was detected. No evidence of caruncle influencing castor seed germination was found under low soil water content and high salinity.

Spatial variability of soil fertility and its relationship with seed physiological potential in a soybean production area

The correlation of soil fertility x seed physiological potential is very important in the area of seed technology but results published with that theme are contradictory. For this reason, this study to evaluate the correlations between soil chemical properties and physiological potential of soybean seeds. On georeferenced points, both soil and seeds were sampled for analysis of soil fertility and seed physiological potential. Data were assessed by the following analyses: descriptive statistics; Pearson's linear correlation; and geostatistics. The adjusted parameters of the semivariograms were used to produce maps of spatial distribution for each variable. Organic matter content, Mn and Cu showed significant effects on seed germination. Most variables studied presented moderate to high spatial dependence. Germination and accelerated aging of seeds, and P, Ca, Mg, Mn, Cu and Zn showed a better fit to spherical semivariogram: organic matter, pH and K had a better fit to Gaussian model; and V% and Fe showed a better fit to the linear model. The values for range of spatial dependence varied from 89.9 m for P until 651.4 m for Fe. These values should be considered when new samples are collected for assessing soil fertility in this production area.

Effects of Seed Treatments and a Soil-applied Nematicide on Corn Yields and Nematode Population Densities

Plant-parasitic nematodes are microscopic worms that feed on plants. Almost every nematode that feeds on corn is capable of feeding on many other plants. These nematode parasites are thought to be native to most Iowa soils and to have fed upon native plants before corn was grown as a cultivated crop. Population densities (numbers) of most species of plant-parasitic nematodes that feed on corn have to increase to damaging levels (called damage thresholds) before yield loss occurs.

Effects of Seed Treatments and a Soil-applied Nematicide on Corn Yields and Nematode Population Densities

Plant-parasitic nematodes are microscopic worms that feed on plants. Almost every nematode that feeds on corn is capable of feeding on many other plants. These nematode parasites are thought to be native to most Iowa soils and to have fed upon native plants before corn was grown as a cultivated crop. Population densities (numbers) of most species of plant-parasitic nematodes that feed on corn have to increase to damaging levels (called damage thresholds) before yield loss occurs.