Ionic liquid pre-treatment and fractionation of sugarcane bagasse for the production of bioethanol

Pretretament is an essential and expensive processing step for the manufacturing of ethanol from lignocellulosic raw materials. Ionic liquids are a new class of solvents that have the potential to be used as pretreatment agents. The attractive characteristics of ionic liquid pretreatment of lignocellulosics such as thermal stability, dissolution properties, fractionation potential, cellulose decrystallisation capacity and saccharification impact are investigated in this thesis. Dissolution of bagasse with 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride ([C4mim]Cl) at high temperatures (110 �‹C to 160 �‹C) is investigated as a pretreatment process. Material balances are reported and used along with enzymatic saccharification data to identify optimum pretreatment conditions (150 �‹C for 90 min). At these conditions, the dissolved and reprecipitated material is enriched in cellulose, has a low crystallinity and the cellulose component is efficiently hydrolysed (93 %, 3 h, 15 FPU). At pretreatment temperatures < 150 �‹C, the undissolved material has only slightly lower crystallinity than the starting. At pretreatment temperatures . 150 �‹C, the undissolved material has low crystallinity and when combined with the dissolved material has a saccharification rate and extent similar to completely dissolved material (100 %, 3h, 15 FPU). Complete dissolution is not necessary to maximize saccharification efficiency at temperatures . 150 �‹C. Fermentation of [C4mim]Cl-pretreated, enzyme-saccharified bagasse to ethanol is successfully conducted (85 % molar glucose-to-ethanol conversion efficiency). As compared to standard dilute acid pretreatment, the optimised [C4mim]Cl pretreatment achieves substantially higher ethanol yields (79 % cf. 52 %) in less than half the processing time (pretreatment, saccharification, fermentation). Fractionation of bagasse partially dissolved in [C4mim]Cl to a polysaccharide rich and a lignin rich fraction is attempted using aqueous biphasic systems (ABSs) and single phase systems with preferential precipitation. ABSs of ILs and concentrated aqueous inorganic salt solutions are achievable (e.g. [C4mim]Cl with 200 g L-1 NaOH), albeit they exhibit a number of technical problems including phase convergence (which increases with increasing biomass loading) and deprotonation of imidazolium ILs (5 % - 8 % mol). Single phase fractionation systems comprising lignin solvents / cellulose antisolvents, viz. NaOH (2M) and acetone in water (1:1, volume basis), afford solids with, respectively, 40 % mass and 29 % mass less lignin than water precipitated solids. However, this delignification imparts little increase in saccharification rates and extents of these solids. An alternative single phase fractionation system is achieved simply by using water as an antisolvent. Regulating the water : IL ratio results in a solution that precipitates cellulose and maintains lignin in solution (0.5 water : IL mass ratio) in both [C4mim]Cl and 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium acetate ([C2mim]OAc)). This water based fractionation is applied in three IL pretreatments on bagasse ([C4mim]Cl, 1-ethyl-3-methyl imidazolium chloride ([C2mim]Cl) and [C2mim]OAc). Lignin removal of 10 %, 50 % and 60 % mass respectively is achieved although only 0.3 %, 1.5 % and 11.7 % is recoverable even after ample water addition (3.5 water : IL mass ratio) and acidification (pH . 1). In addition the recovered lignin fraction contains 70 % mass hemicelluloses. The delignified, cellulose-rich bagasse recovered from these three ILs is exposed to enzyme saccharification. The saccharification (24 h, 15 FPU) of the cellulose mass in starting bagasse, achieved by these pretreatments rank as: [C2mim]OAc (83 %)>>[C2mim]Cl (53 %)=[C4mim]Cl(53%). Mass balance determinations accounted for 97 % of starting bagasse mass for the [C4mim]Cl pretreatment , 81 % for [C2mim]Cl and 79 %for [C2mim]OAc. For all three IL treatments, the remaining bagasse mass (not accounted for by mass balance determinations) is mainly (more than half) lignin that is not recoverable from the liquid fraction. After pretreatment, 100 % mass of both ions of all three ILs were recovered in the liquid fraction. Compositional characteristics of [C2mim]OAc treated solids such as low lignin, low acetyl group content and preservation of arabinosyl groups are opposite to those of chloride IL treated solids. The former biomass characteristics resemble those imparted by aqueous alkali pretreatment while the latter resemble those of aqueous acid pretreatments. The 100 % mass recovery of cellulose in [C2mim]OAc as opposed to 53 % mass recovery in [C2mim]Cl further demonstrates this since the cellulose glycosidic bonds are protected under alkali conditions. The alkyl chain length decrease in the imidazolium cation of these ILs imparts higher rates of dissolution and losses, and increases the severity of the treatment without changing the chemistry involved.

Effect of preparation method of palygorskite-supported Fe and Ni catalysts on catalytic cracking of biomass tar

In this study, the effect of catalyst preparation and additive precursors on the catalytic decomposition of biomass using palygorskite-supported Fe and Ni catalysts was investigated. The catalysts were characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). It is concluded that the most active additive precursor was Fe(NO3)3·9H2O. As for the catalyst preparation method, co-precipitation had superiority over incipient wetness impregnation at low Fe loadings.

CO2 reforming of toluene as model compound of biomass tar on Ni/Palygorskite

Catalytic CO2 reforming of biomass tar on palygorskite-supported nickel catalysts using toluene as a model compound of biomass tar was investigated. The experiments were performed in a bench scale installation a fixed bed reactor. All experiments were carried out at 650, 750, 800 °C and atmospheric pressure. The effect of Ni loading, reaction temperature and concentration of CO2 on H2 yield and carbon deposit was investigated. Ni/Palygorskite (Ni/PG) catalysts with Ni/PG ratios of 0%, 2%, 5% and 8% were tested, the last two show the best performance. H2 yield and carbon deposit diminished with the increase of reaction temperature, Ni loading, and CO2 concentration.

A comparative study on pyrolysis for liquid oil from different biomass solid wastes

Locally available different bbiomass solid wastes, pine seed, date seed, plum seed, nutshell, hay of catkin, rice husk, jute stick, saw-dust, wheat straw and linseed residue in the particle form have been pyrolyzed in laboratory scale fixed bed reactor. The products obtained are pyrolysis oil, solid char and gas. The oil and char are collected while the gas is flared into atmosphere. The variation of oil yield for different biomass feedstock with reaction parameters like, reactor bed temperature, feed size and running time is presented in a comparative way in the paper. A maximum liquid yield of 55 wt% of dry feedstock is obtained at an optimum temperature of 500 °C for a feed size of 300-600 μm with a running time of 55 min with nutshell as the feedstock while the minimum liquid yield is found to be 30 wt% of feedstock at an optimum temperature of 400 °C for a feed size of 2.36 mm with a running time of 65 min for linseed residue. A detailed study on the variation of product yields with reaction parameters is presented for the latest investigation with pine seed as the feedstock where a maximum liquid yield of 40 wt% of dry feedstock is obtained at an optimum temperature of 500 °C for a feed size of 2.36-2.76 mm with a running time of 120 min. The characterization of the pyrolysis oil is carried out and a comparison of some selected properties of the oil is presented. From the study it is exhibited that the biomass solid wastes have the potential to be converted into liquid oil as a source of renewable energy with some further upgrading of the products.

Regional contingencies in the relationship between aboveground biomass and litter in the world’s grasslands

Based on regional-scale studies, aboveground production and litter decomposition are thought to positively covary, because they are driven by shared biotic and climatic factors. Until now we have been unable to test whether production and decomposition are generally coupled across climatically dissimilar regions, because we lacked replicated data collected within a single vegetation type across multiple regions, obfuscating the drivers and generality of the association between production and decomposition. Furthermore, our understanding of the relationships between production and decomposition rests heavily on separate meta-analyses of each response, because no studies have simultaneously measured production and the accumulation or decomposition of litter using consistent methods at globally relevant scales. Here, we use a multi-country grassland dataset collected using a standardized protocol to show that live plant biomass (an estimate of aboveground net primary production) and litter disappearance (represented by mass loss of aboveground litter) do not strongly covary. Live biomass and litter disappearance varied at different spatial scales. There was substantial variation in live biomass among continents, sites and plots whereas among continent differences accounted for most of the variation in litter disappearance rates. Although there were strong associations among aboveground biomass, litter disappearance and climatic factors in some regions (e.g. U.S. Great Plains), these relationships were inconsistent within and among the regions represented by this study. These results highlight the importance of replication among regions and continents when characterizing the correlations between ecosystem processes and interpreting their global-scale implications for carbon flux. We must exercise caution in parameterizing litter decomposition and aboveground production in future regional and global carbon models as their relationship is complex.

Effects of dissolved oxygen availability and culture biomass at induction upon the intracellular expression of monoamine oxidase by recombinant E. coli in fed batch bioprocesses

The effects of oxygen availability and induction culture biomass upon production of an industrially important monoamine oxidase (MAO) were investigated in fed-batch cultures of a recombinant E. coli. For each induction cell biomass 2 different oxygenation methods were used, aeration and oxygen enriched air. Induction at higher biomass levels increased the culture demand for oxygen, leading to fermentative metabolism and accumulation of high levels of acetate in the aerated cultures. Paradoxically, despite an almost eight fold increase in acetate accumulation to levels widely reported to be highly detrimental to protein production, when induction wet cell weight (WCW) rose from 100% to 137.5%, MAO specific activity in these aerated processes showed a 3 fold increase. By contrast, for oxygenated cultures induced at WCW's 100% and 137.5% specific activity levels were broadly similar, but fell rapidly after the maxima were reached. Induction at high biomass levels (WCW 175%) led to very low levels of specific MAO activity relative to induction at lower WCW's in both aerated and oxygenated cultures. Oxygen enrichment of these cultures was a useful strategy for boosting specific growth rates, but did not have positive effects upon specific enzyme activity. Based upon our findings, consideration of the amino acid composition of MAO and previous studies on related enzymes, we propose that this effect is due to oxidative damage to the MAO enzyme itself during these highly aerobic processes. Thus, the optimal process for MAO production is aerated, not oxygenated, and induced at moderate cell density, and clearly represents a compromise between oxygen supply effects on specific growth rate/induction cell density, acetate accumulation, and high specific MAO activity. This work shows that the negative effects of oxygen previously reported in free enzyme preparations, are not limited to these acellular environments but are also discernible in the sheltered environment of the cytosol of E. coli cells.

Recombinant cellulase accumulation in the leaves of mature, vegetatively propagated transgenic sugarcane

The cost of enzymes that hydrolyse lignocellulosic substrates to fermentable sugars needs to be reduced to make cellulosic ethanol a cost-competitive liquid transport fuel. Sugarcane is a perennial crop and the successful integration of cellulase transgenes into the sugarcane production system requires that transgene expression is stable in the ratoon. Herein, we compared the accumulation of recombinant fungal cellobiohydrolase I (CBH I), fungal cellobiohydrolase II (CBH II), and bacterial endoglucanase (EG) in the leaves of mature, initial transgenic sugarcane plants and their mature ratoon. Mature ratoon events containing equivalent or elevated levels of active CBH I, CBH II, and EG in the leaves were identified. Further, we have demonstrated that recombinant fungal CBH I and CBH II can resist proteolysis during sugarcane leaf senescence, while bacterial EG cannot. These results demonstrate the stability of cellulase enzyme transgene expression in transgenic sugarcane and the utility of sugarcane as a biofactory crop for production of cellulases.

Microalgal biomass as a fermentation feedstock for bioethanol production

BACKGROUND The increasing cost of fossil fuels as well as the escalating social and industrial awareness of the environmental impacts associated with the use of fossil fuels has created the need for more sustainable fuel options. Bioethanol, produced from renewable biomass such as sugar and starch materials, is believed to be one of these options, and it is currently being harnessed extensively. However, the utilization of sugar and starch materials as feedstocks for bioethanol production creates a major competition with the food market in terms of land for cultivation, and this makes bioethanol from these sources economically less attractive. RESULT This study explores the suitability of microalgae (Chlorococum sp.) as a substrate for bioethanol production via yeast (Saccharomycesbayanus)under different fermentation conditions. Results show a maximum ethanol concentration of 3.83 g L -1 obtained from 10 g L-1 of lipid-extracted microalgae debris. CONCLUSION This productivity level (∼38% w/w), which is in keeping with that of current production systems endorses microalgae as a promising substrate for bioethanol production.

Measuring the regional availability of biomass for biofuels and the potential for microalgae

Biomass is an important energy resource for producing bioenergy and growing the global economy whilst minimising greenhouse gas emissions. Many countries, like Australia have a huge amount of biomass with the potential for bioenergy, but non-edible feedstock resources are significantly under-exploited. Hence it is essential to map the availability of these feedstocks to identify the most appropriate bioenergy solution for each region and develop supply chains for biorefineries. Using Australia as a case study,we present the spatial availability and opportunities for second and third generation feedstocks. Considerations included current land use, the presence of existing biomass industries and climatic conditions. Detailed information on the regional availability of biomass was collected from government statistics, technical reports and energy assessments as well as from academic literature. Second generation biofuels have the largest opportunity in New South Wales, Queensland and Victoria (NSW, QLD and VIC) and the regions with the highest potential for microalgae are Western Australia and Northern Territory (WA, NT), based on land use opportunity cost and climate. The approach can be used in other countries with a similar climate. More research is needed to overcome key technical and economic hurdles.

Biosorption of metals using nonliving biomass - A review

A review of published literature on the biosorption of metals using nonliving biomass is presented. Factors such as pH, temperature, initial metal concentration, biomass loaning, the presence of co-ions and the pretreatment of biomass influence the metal uptake by biomass. Although few generalizations are possible, unified theor ies regarding the mechanism of uptake are not available. Therefore, the above aspects of metal biosorption have to be defined individually for each biomass and metal-ion pair.

Estimation of mineral-adhered biomass of Thiobacillusferrooxidans by protein assay-some problems and remedies

Enumeration of adhered cells of Thiobacillus ferrooxidans on sulphide minerals through protein assay poses problems due to interference from dissolved mineral constituents. The manner in which sulphide minerals such as pyrite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, arsenopyrite and pyrrhotite interfere with bacterial protein estimation is demonstrated. Such interferences can be minimised either through dilution or addition of H2O2 to the filtrate after hot alkaline digestion of the biotreated mineral samples.

Biomethanation of herbaceous biomass residues using 3-zone plug flow like digesters - A case study from India

Biomethanation of herbaceous biomass feedstock has the potential to provide clean energy source for cooking and other activities in areas where such biomass availability predominates. A biomethanation concept that involves fermentation of biomass residues in three steps, occurring in three zones of the fermentor is described. This approach while attempting take advantage of multistage reactors simplifies the reactor operation and obviates the need for a high degree of process control or complex reactor design. Typical herbaceous biomass decompose with a rapid VFA flux initially (with a tendency to float) followed by a slower decomposition showing balanced process of VFA generation and its utilization by methanogens that colonize biomass slowly. The tendency to float at the initial stages is suppressed by allowing previous days feed to hold it below digester liquid which permits VFA to disperse into the digester liquid without causing process inhibition. This approach has been used to build and operate simple biomass digesters to provide cooking gas in rural areas with weed and agro-residues. With appropriate modifications, the same concept has been used for digesting municipal solid wastes in small towns where large fermentors are not viable. With further modifications this concept has been used for solid-liquid feed fermentors. Methanogen colonized leaf biomass has been used as biofilm support to treat coffee processing wastewater as well as crop litter alternately in a year. During summer it functions as a biomass based biogas plants operating in the three-zone mode while in winter, feeding biomass is suspended and high strength coffee processing wastewater is let into the fermentor achieving over 90% BOD reduction. The early field experience of these fermentors is presented.

Spatial and temporal distribution of tropical phytoplankton species and biomass in the Gulf of Carpenteria, Australia

The biomass and species composition of tropical phytoplankton in Albatross Bay, Gulf of Carpentaria, northern Australia, were examined monthly for 6 yr (1986 to 1992). Chlorophyll a (chl a) concentrations were highest (2 to 5.7 mu g l(-1)) in the wet season at inshore sites, usually coinciding with low salinities (30 to 33 ppt) and high temperatures (29 to 32 degrees C). At the offshore sites chi a concentrations were lower (0.2 to 2 mu g l(-1)) and did not vary seasonally. Nitrate and phosphate concentrations were generally low (0 to 3.68 mu M and 0.09 to 3 mu M for nitrate and phosphate respectively), whereas silicate was present in concentrations in the range 0.19 to 13 mu M. The phytoplankton community was dominated by diatoms, particularly at the inshore sites, as determined by a combination of microscopic and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) pigment analyses. At the offshore sites the proportion of green flagellates increased. The cyanobacterium genus Trichodesmium and the diatom genera Chaetoceros, Rhizosolenia, Bacteriastrum and Thalassionema dominated the phytoplankton caught in 37 mu m mesh nets; however, in contrast to many other coastal areas studied worldwide there was no distinct species succession of the diatoms and only Trichodesmium showed seasonal changes in abundance. This reflects a stable phytoplankton community in waters without pulses of physical and chemical disturbances. These results are discussed in the context of the commercial prawn fishery in the Gulf of Carpentaria and the possible effect of phytoplankton on prawn larval growth and survival.

Limitations of soil microbial biomass carbon as an indicator of soil pollution in the field

The size of the soil microbial biomass carbon (SMBC) has been proposed as a sensitive indicator for measuring the adverse effects of contaminants on the soil microbial community. In this study of Australian agricultural systems, we demonstrated that field variability of SMBC measured using the fumigation-extraction procedure limited its use as a robust ecotoxicological endpoint. The SMBC varied up to 4-fold across control samples collected from a single field site, due to small-scale spatial heterogeneity in the soil physicochemical environment. Power analysis revealed that large numbers of replicates (3-93) were required to identify 20% or 50% decreases in the size of the SMBC of contaminated soil samples relative to their uncontaminated control samples at the 0.05% level of statistical significance. We question the value of the routine measurement of SMBC as an ecotoxicological endpoint at the field scale, and suggest more robust and predictive microbiological indicators.