Numerical and Experimental Studies of Sail Aerodynamics

The purpose of this investigation was the determination of the aerodynamic performance of sails and gain knowledge of the phenomena involved in order to improve the aerody¬namic characteristics. In this research, the airflow around different sails in four scenarios was studied. The method to analyze these scenarios was the combination of numerical simulations and experimental tests by taking advantage of the best of each tool. Two different Com¬putational Fluid Dynamic codes were utilized: the ANSYS-CFX and the CD-Adapco’s STAR-CCM+. The experimental tests were conducted in the Atmospheric Boundary Layer Wind Tunnel at the Universidad de Granada (Spain), the Twisted Flow Wind Tunnel at the University of Auckland (New Zealand) and the A9 Wind Tunnel at the Universidad Polit´ecnica de Madrid (Spain). Through this research, it was found the three-dimensional effect of the mast on the aerodynamic performance of an IMS Class boat. The pressure distribution on a Transpac 52 Class mainsail was also determined. Moreover, the aerodynamic perfor¬mance of the 43ft and 60ft Dhow Classes was obtained. Finally, a feasibility study was conducted to use a structural wing in combination with conventional propulsions systems. The main conclusion was that this research clarified gaps on the knowledge of the aerodynamic performance of sails. Moreover, since commercial codes were not specifically designed to study sails, a procedure was developed. On the other hand, innovative experimental techniques were used and applied to model-scale sails. The achievements of this thesis are promising and some of the results are already in use by the industry on a daily basis. El propósito de este estudio era determinar el comportamiento aerodinámico de unas velas y mejorar el conocimiento de los fenómenos que suceden para optimizar las características aerodinámicas de dichas velas. En esta investigación se estudió el flujo de aire alrededor de diferentes velas en cuatro escenarios. El método para analizar estos escenarios fue la combinación de simulaciones numéricas y ensayos experimentales mediante el aprovechamiento de las ventajas de cada herramienta. Se utilizaron dos códigos de dinámica de fluidos computacional: el ANSYS-CFX y el STAR-CCM+ de la empresa CD-Adapco. Los ensayos experimentales se desarrollaron en el túnel de viento de capa límite de la Universidad de Granada (España), el túnel de viento de la Universidad de Auckland (Nueva Zelanda) y en el túnel A9 de la Universidad Politécnica de Madrid (España). Mediante esta investigación, se determinó el efecto tridimensional del mástil en un velero de la clase IMS. También se describió la distribución de presiones sobre una mayor de un Transpac 52. Además, se obtuvo el comportamiento aerodinámico de las clases 43ft y 60ft de los veleros Dhows. Finalmente, se llevó a cabo un estudio de viabilidad de la utilización de un ala estructural en combinación con sistemas de propulsión convencionales. La conclusión principal de esta investigación fue la capacidad de explicar ciertas lagunas en el conocimiento del comportamiento aerodinámico de las velas en diferentes escenarios. Además, dado que los códigos comerciales no están específicamente diseñados para el estudio de velas, se desarrolló un procedimiento a tal efecto. Por otro lado, se han utilizado innovadoras técnicas experimentales y se han aplicado a modelos de velas a escala. Los logros de esta investigación son prometedores y algunos de los resultados obtenidos ya están siendo utilizados por la industria en su día a día.

Seawater carbonate chemistry and photosynthetic response of Emiliania huxleyi (CS-369) to UV radiation and elevated temperature duirng experiments, 2011

Changes in calcification of coccolithophores may affect their photosynthetic responses to both, ultraviolet radiation (UVR, 280-400 nm) and temperature. We operated semi-continuous cultures of Emiliania huxleyi (strain CS-369) at reduced (0.1 mM, LCa) and ambient (10 mM, HCa) Ca2+ concentrations and, after 148 generations, we exposed cells to six radiation treatments (>280, >295, >305, >320, >350 and >395 nm by using Schott filters) and two temperatures (20 and 25 °C) to examine photosynthesis and calcification responses. Overall, our study demonstrated that: (1) decreased calcification resulted in a down regulation of photoprotective mechanisms (i.e., as estimated via non-photochemical quenching, NPQ), pigments contents and photosynthetic carbon fixation; (2) calcification (C) and photosynthesis (P) (as well as their ratio) have different responses related to UVR with cells grown under the high Ca2+ concentration being more resistant to UVR than those grown under the low Ca2+ level; (3) elevated temperature increased photosynthesis and calcification of E. huxleyi grown at high Ca2+concentrations whereas decreased both processes in low Ca2+ grown cells. Therefore, a decrease in calcification rates in E. huxleyi is expected to decrease photosynthesis rates, resulting in a negative feedback that further reduces calcification.

Seawater carbonate chemistry and accumulation of radiotracers in squid, Loligo vulgaris during experiments, 2011

The anthropogenic release of carbon dioxide (CO2) into the atmosphere leads to an increase in the CO2 partial pressure (pCO2) in the ocean, which may reach 950 ?atm by the end of the 21st century. The resulting hypercapnia (high pCO2) and decreasing pH ("ocean acidification") are expected to have appreciable effects on water-breathing organisms, especially on their early-life stages. For organisms like squid that lay their eggs in coastal areas where the embryo and then paralarva are also exposed to metal contamination, there is a need for information on how ocean acidification may influence trace element bioaccumulation during their development. In this study, we investigated the effects of enhanced levels of pCO2 (380, 850 and 1500 ?atm corresponding to pHT of 8.1, 7.85 and 7.60) on the accumulation of dissolved 110mAg, 109Cd, 57Co, 203Hg, 54Mn and 65Zn radiotracers in the whole egg strand and in the different compartments of the egg of Loligo vulgaris during the embryonic development and also in hatchlings during their first days of paralarval life. Retention properties of the eggshell for 110mAg, 203Hg and 65Zn were affected by the pCO2 treatments. In the embryo, increasing seawater pCO2 enhanced the uptake of both 110mAg and 65Zn while 203Hg showed a minimum concentration factor (CF) at the intermediate pCO2. 65Zn incorporation in statoliths also increased with increasing pCO2. Conversely, uptake of 109Cd and 54Mn in the embryo decreased as a function of increasing pCO2. Only the accumulation of 57Co in embryos was not affected by increasing pCO2. In paralarvae, the CF of 110mAg increased with increasing pCO2, whereas the 57Co CF was reduced at the highest pCO2 and 203Hg showed a maximal uptake rate at the intermediate pCO2. 54Mn and 65Zn accumulation in paralarvae were not significantly modified by hypercapnic conditions. Our results suggest a combined effect of pH on the adsorption and protective properties of the eggshell and of hypercapnia on the metabolism of embryo and paralarvae, both causing changes to the accumulation of metals in the tissues of L. vulgaris.

Rothamsted memoirs on agricultural chemistry and physiology. (From the 'Philosophical transactions')

I. Containing reports of researches on vegetation. Pub. 1861 and 1889.--II. Containing reports of researches on the mixed herbage of permanent grass-land. Pub 1880-1882 [1900]--III. Containing reports of researches on animal composition. Pub. 1859 and 1883.

Experimental classes for adult education; a report of the extension activities of the People's institute of New York,

Mode of access: Internet.

Iminopropadienones R-N=C=C=C=O and carbon suboxide, C3O2. Theoretical and experimental 13C NMR spectra

The C-13 NMR data of five iminopropadienones R-N=C=C=C=O as well as carbon suboxide, C3O2, have been examined theoretically and experimentally. The best theoretical results were obtained using the GIAO/B3LYP/6-31 +G**//MP2/6-31G* level of theory, which reproduces the chemical shifts of the iminopropadienone substituents extremely well while underestimating those of the cumulenic carbons by 5-10 ppm. The computationally faster GIAO/HF/6-31 + G**//B3LYP/6-31 G* level is also adequate. (C) 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Seawater carbonate chemistry and diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum (CCMA 106) biological processes during experiments, 2010

CO2/pH perturbation experiments were carried out under two different pCO2 levels (39.3 and 101.3 Pa) to evaluate effects of CO2-induced ocean acidification on the marine diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum. After acclimation (>20 generations) to ambient and elevated CO2 conditions (with corresponding pH values of 8.15 and 7.80, respectively), growth and photosynthetic carbon fixation rates of high CO2 grown cells were enhanced by 5% and 12%, respectively, and dark respiration stimulated by 34% compared to cells grown at ambient CO2. The half saturation constant (Km) for carbon fixation (dissolved inorganic carbon, DIC) increased by 20% under the low pH and high CO2 condition, reflecting a decreased affinity for HCO3- or/and CO2 and down-regulated carbon concentrating mechanism (CCM). In the high CO2 grown cells, the electron transport rate from photosystem II (PSII) was photoinhibited to a greater extent at high levels of photosynthetically active radiation, while non-photochemical quenching was reduced compared to low CO2 grown cells. This was probably due to the down-regulation of CCM, which serves as a sink for excessive energy. The balance between these positive and negative effects on diatom productivity will be a key factor in determining the net effect of rising atmospheric CO2 on ocean primary production.

Seawater carbonate chemistry and biological processes during experiments with early life stages of the blue mussel Mytilus edulis, 2010

Several experiments have shown a decrease of growth and calcification of organisms at decreased pH levels. There is a growing interest to focus on early life stages that are believed to be more sensitive to environmental disturbances such as hypercapnia. Here, we present experimental data, acquired in a commercial hatchery, demonstrating that the growth of planktonic mussel (Mytilus edulis) larvae is significantly affected by a decrease of pH to a level expected for the end of the century. Even though there was no significant effect of a 0.25-0.34 pH unit decrease on hatching and mortality rates during the first 2 days of development nor during the following 13-day period prior to settlement, final shells were respectively 4.5±1.3 and 6.0±2.3% smaller at pHNBS~7.8 (pCO2~1100-1200 µatm) than at a control pHNBS of ~8.1 (pCO2~460-640 µatm). Moreover, a decrease of 12.0±5.4% of shell thickness was observed after 15d of development. More severe impacts were found with a decrease of ~0.5 pHNBS unit during the first 2 days of development which could be attributed to a decrease of calcification due to a slight undersaturation of seawater with respect to aragonite. Indeed, important effects on both hatching and D-veliger shell growth were found. Hatching rates were 24±4% lower while D-veliger shells were 12.7±0.9% smaller at pHNBS~7.6 (pCO2~1900 µatm) than at a control pHNBS of ~8.1 (pCO2~540 µatm). Although these results show that blue mussel larvae are still able to develop a shell in seawater undersaturated with respect to aragonite, the observed decreases of hatching rates and shell growth could lead to a significant decrease of the settlement success. As the environmental conditions considered in this study do not necessarily reflect the natural conditions experienced by this species at the time of spawning, future studies will need to consider the whole larval cycle (from fertilization to settlement) under environmentally relevant conditions in order to investigate the potential ecological and economical losses of a decrease of this species fitness in the field.

Seawater carbonate chemistry and particulate organic particles during a semicontinuous batch culture experiment with Trichodesmium IMS101, 2007

Diazotrophic (N2-fixing) cyanobacteria provide the biological source of new nitrogen for large parts of the ocean. However, little is known about their sensitivity to global change. Here we show that the single most important nitrogen fixer in today's ocean, Trichodesmium, is strongly affected by changes in CO2 concentrations. Cell division rate doubled with rising CO2 (glacial to projected year 2100 levels) prompting lower carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus cellular contents, and reduced cell dimensions. N2 fixation rates per unit of phosphorus utilization as well as C:P and N:P ratios more than doubled at high CO2, with no change in C:N ratios. This could enhance the productivity of N-limited oligotrophic oceans, drive some of these areas into P limitation, and increase biological carbon sequestration in the ocean. The observed CO2 sensitivity of Trichodesmium could thereby provide a strong negative feedback to atmospheric CO2 increase.

Seawater carbonate chemistry and processes during experiments with phytoplankton Emiliania huxleyi (strain Bergen 2005), 2010

The response of the coccolithophore Emiliania huxleyi to rising CO2 concentrations is well documented for acclimated cultures where cells are exposed to the CO2 treatments for several generations prior to the experiment. The exact number of generations required for acclimation to CO2-induced changes in seawater carbonate chemistry, however, is unknown. Here we show that Emiliania huxleyi's short-term response (26 h) after cultures (grown at 500 µatm) were abruptly exposed to changed CO2 concentrations (~190, 410, 800 and 1500 ?atm) is similar to that obtained with acclimated cultures under comparable conditions in earlier studies. Most importantly, from the lower CO2 levels (190 and 410 ?atm) to 750 and 1500 µatm calcification decreased and organic carbon fixation increased within the first 8 to 14 h after exposing the cultures to changes in carbonate chemistry. This suggests that Emiliania huxleyi rapidly alters the rates of essential metabolical processes in response to changes in seawater carbonate chemistry, establishing a new physiological "state" (acclimation) within a matter of hours. If this relatively rapid response applies to other phytoplankton species, it may simplify interpretation of studies with natural communities (e.g. mesocosm studies and ship-board incubations), where often it is not feasible to allow for a pre-conditioning phase before starting experimental incubations.

Seawater carbonate chemistry and processes during experiments with Emiliania huxleyi (2005 Bergen) and Coccolithus braarudii (RCC 1200), 2010

The physiological performance of two coccolithophore species,Emiliania huxleyi and Coccolithus braarudii, was investigated during long-term exposure to elevated pCO2 levels. Mono-specific cultures were grown over 152 (E. huxleyi) and 65 (C. braarudii) generations while pCO2 was gradually increased to maximum levels of 1150 ?atm (E. huxleyi) and 930 ?atm (C. braarudii) and kept constant thereafter. Rates of cell growth and cell quotas of particulate organic carbon (POC), particulate inorganic carbon (PIC) and total particulate nitrogen (TPN) were determined repeatedly throughout the incubation period. Increasing pCO2 caused a decrease in cell growth rate of 9% and 29% in E. huxleyi and C. braarudii, respectively. In both species cellular PIC:TPN and PIC:POC ratios decreased in response to rising pCO2, whereas no change was observed in the POC:TPN ratios of E. huxleyi and C. braarudii. These results are consistent with those obtained in shorter-term high CO2exposure experiments following abrupt pertubations of the seawater carbonate system and indicate that for the strains tested here a gradual CO2 increase does not alleviate CO2/pH sensitivity.

Seawater carbonate chemistry and biological processes during experiments with Coccolithus braarudii, 2011

Ocean acidification and associated shifts in carbonate chemistry speciation induced by increasing levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) have the potential to impact marine biota in various ways. The process of biogenic calcification, for instance, is usually shown to be negatively affected. In coccolithophores, an important group of pelagic calcifiers, changes in cellular calcification rates in response to changing ocean carbonate chemistry appear to differ among species. By applying a wider CO2 range we show that a species previously reported insensitive to seawater acidification, Coccolithusbraarudii, responds both in terms of calcification and photosynthesis, although at higher levels of CO2. Thus, observed differences between species seem to be related to individual sensitivities while the underlying mechanisms could be the same. On this basis we develop a conceptual model of coccolithophorid calcification and photosynthesis in response to CO2-induced changes in seawater carbonate chemistry speciation.

Seawater carbonate chemistry and Pacific oyster (Crassostrea gigas) biological processes during experiments, 2011

Ocean acidification, due to anthropogenic CO2 absorption by the ocean, may have profound impacts on marine biota. Calcareous organisms are expected to be particularly sensitive due to the decreasing availability of carbonate ions driven by decreasing pH levels. Recently, some studies focused on the early life stages of mollusks that are supposedly more sensitive to environmental disturbances than adult stages. Although these studies have shown decreased growth rates and increased proportions of abnormal development under low pH conditions, they did not allow attribution to pH induced changes in physiology or changes due to a decrease in aragonite saturation state. This study aims to assess the impact of several carbonate-system perturbations on the growth of Pacific oyster (Crassostrea gigas) larvae during the first 3 days of development (until shelled D-veliger larvae). Seawater with five different chemistries was obtained by separately manipulating pH, total alkalinity and aragonite saturation state (calcium addition). Results showed that the developmental success and growth rates were not directly affected by changes in pH or aragonite saturation state but were highly correlated with the availability of carbonate ions. In contrast to previous studies, both developmental success into viable D-shaped larvae and growth rates were not significantly altered as long as carbonate ion concentrations were above aragonite saturation levels, but they strongly decreased below saturation levels. These results suggest that the mechanisms used by these organisms to regulate calcification rates are not efficient enough to compensate for the low availability of carbonate ions under corrosive conditions.