Evaluación geoecológica de los paisajes del Departamento Minas (Provincia de Neuquén), para el estudio de la degradación de la tierra

Las sociedades en su afán de aprovechar los recursos naturales que la tierra le provee, han ido transformando permanentemente el medio que habitamos, generando una crisis ambiental que es tema de preocupación y permanente discusión en organismos, foros y conferencias relacionados con el cuidado y protección del medio ambiente. En las regiones áridas y semiáridas uno de los problemas ambientales más comunes es la degradación de tierras por efecto del sobrepastoreo. La tercera parte de la superficie terrestre del planeta es árida y semiárida y en ella los procesos de desertización se han intensificado en los últimos decenios. Según la Convención de las Naciones Unidas de lucha contra la Desertificación (CNULD), este problema amenaza al 40 por ciento aproximadamente, de la masa terrestre de nuestro planeta. Más de 1000 millones de personas en alrededor de 100 países están afectadas directamente por la desertificación o corren peligro de estarlo (CNULD, 2003), estimándose que "la pérdida de ingresos en las áreas afectadas alcanza a unos 42.000 millones de dólares". Argentina en general y la Patagonia en particular, no son ajenas a esta situación. La Secretaría de Recursos Naturales y Medio Ambiente Humano (1996), calcula que aproximadamente el 75 por ciento de nuestro territorio nacional se encuentra afectado por crecientes condiciones de aridez y en la Patagonia, el 90 por ciento de la superficie (unos 780.000 km2) presenta signos de degradación. De esta superficie, un 30 por ciento, está bajo procesos erosivos eólicos e hídricos severos o graves con tendencia a agravarse. Teniendo en cuenta esta situación, esta tesis tiene como propósito aplicar las concepciones metodológicas de la geoecología de los paisajes en el Departamento Minas (Provincia de Neuquén), con vistas a estudiar la estructura y funcionamiento de los paisajes, herramienta fundamental para comprender el fenómeno de la degradación de la tierra. El objetivo central de este trabajo consiste en estudiar la degradación de los paisajes de este lugar a partir de los preceptos de la geoecología, con apoyo de los Sistemas de Información Geográfica y la teledetección, estableciendo índices diagnósticos que reflejen la interacción e interdependencia entre los componentes naturales y sociales del paisaje. El estudio de los paisajes brinda la posibilidad de integrar transdisciplinariamente los conocimientos y percepciones de la diversidad geoecológica y socioeconómica desde una perspectiva dinámica. Mediante este análisis se puede arribar al conocimiento de las formas de ocupación y conservación de los recursos naturales procurando la protección de la oferta ecológica a largo plazo. El paisaje geográfico o geosistema se concibe como "un sistema espacio-temporal, complejo y abierto, que se origina y evoluciona justamente en la interfase naturaleza-sociedad, en un constante estado de intercambio de energía, materia e información, donde su estructura, funcionamiento, dinámica y evolución reflejan la interacción entre los componentes naturales (abióticos y bióticos), técnico-económicos y socio-culturales (Mateo, J. 1991; Salinas. E. 1991y 1997). Se trata de una formación socio-natural que constituye una categoría científica y como tal, será adoptada en este trabajo.

Evaluación geoecológica de los paisajes del Departamento Minas (Provincia de Neuquén), para el estudio de la degradación de la tierra

Las sociedades en su afán de aprovechar los recursos naturales que la tierra le provee, han ido transformando permanentemente el medio que habitamos, generando una crisis ambiental que es tema de preocupación y permanente discusión en organismos, foros y conferencias relacionados con el cuidado y protección del medio ambiente. En las regiones áridas y semiáridas uno de los problemas ambientales más comunes es la degradación de tierras por efecto del sobrepastoreo. La tercera parte de la superficie terrestre del planeta es árida y semiárida y en ella los procesos de desertización se han intensificado en los últimos decenios. Según la Convención de las Naciones Unidas de lucha contra la Desertificación (CNULD), este problema amenaza al 40 por ciento aproximadamente, de la masa terrestre de nuestro planeta. Más de 1000 millones de personas en alrededor de 100 países están afectadas directamente por la desertificación o corren peligro de estarlo (CNULD, 2003), estimándose que "la pérdida de ingresos en las áreas afectadas alcanza a unos 42.000 millones de dólares". Argentina en general y la Patagonia en particular, no son ajenas a esta situación. La Secretaría de Recursos Naturales y Medio Ambiente Humano (1996), calcula que aproximadamente el 75 por ciento de nuestro territorio nacional se encuentra afectado por crecientes condiciones de aridez y en la Patagonia, el 90 por ciento de la superficie (unos 780.000 km2) presenta signos de degradación. De esta superficie, un 30 por ciento, está bajo procesos erosivos eólicos e hídricos severos o graves con tendencia a agravarse. Teniendo en cuenta esta situación, esta tesis tiene como propósito aplicar las concepciones metodológicas de la geoecología de los paisajes en el Departamento Minas (Provincia de Neuquén), con vistas a estudiar la estructura y funcionamiento de los paisajes, herramienta fundamental para comprender el fenómeno de la degradación de la tierra. El objetivo central de este trabajo consiste en estudiar la degradación de los paisajes de este lugar a partir de los preceptos de la geoecología, con apoyo de los Sistemas de Información Geográfica y la teledetección, estableciendo índices diagnósticos que reflejen la interacción e interdependencia entre los componentes naturales y sociales del paisaje. El estudio de los paisajes brinda la posibilidad de integrar transdisciplinariamente los conocimientos y percepciones de la diversidad geoecológica y socioeconómica desde una perspectiva dinámica. Mediante este análisis se puede arribar al conocimiento de las formas de ocupación y conservación de los recursos naturales procurando la protección de la oferta ecológica a largo plazo. El paisaje geográfico o geosistema se concibe como "un sistema espacio-temporal, complejo y abierto, que se origina y evoluciona justamente en la interfase naturaleza-sociedad, en un constante estado de intercambio de energía, materia e información, donde su estructura, funcionamiento, dinámica y evolución reflejan la interacción entre los componentes naturales (abióticos y bióticos), técnico-económicos y socio-culturales (Mateo, J. 1991; Salinas. E. 1991y 1997). Se trata de una formación socio-natural que constituye una categoría científica y como tal, será adoptada en este trabajo.

Evaluación geoecológica de los paisajes del Departamento Minas (Provincia de Neuquén), para el estudio de la degradación de la tierra

Las sociedades en su afán de aprovechar los recursos naturales que la tierra le provee, han ido transformando permanentemente el medio que habitamos, generando una crisis ambiental que es tema de preocupación y permanente discusión en organismos, foros y conferencias relacionados con el cuidado y protección del medio ambiente. En las regiones áridas y semiáridas uno de los problemas ambientales más comunes es la degradación de tierras por efecto del sobrepastoreo. La tercera parte de la superficie terrestre del planeta es árida y semiárida y en ella los procesos de desertización se han intensificado en los últimos decenios. Según la Convención de las Naciones Unidas de lucha contra la Desertificación (CNULD), este problema amenaza al 40 por ciento aproximadamente, de la masa terrestre de nuestro planeta. Más de 1000 millones de personas en alrededor de 100 países están afectadas directamente por la desertificación o corren peligro de estarlo (CNULD, 2003), estimándose que "la pérdida de ingresos en las áreas afectadas alcanza a unos 42.000 millones de dólares". Argentina en general y la Patagonia en particular, no son ajenas a esta situación. La Secretaría de Recursos Naturales y Medio Ambiente Humano (1996), calcula que aproximadamente el 75 por ciento de nuestro territorio nacional se encuentra afectado por crecientes condiciones de aridez y en la Patagonia, el 90 por ciento de la superficie (unos 780.000 km2) presenta signos de degradación. De esta superficie, un 30 por ciento, está bajo procesos erosivos eólicos e hídricos severos o graves con tendencia a agravarse. Teniendo en cuenta esta situación, esta tesis tiene como propósito aplicar las concepciones metodológicas de la geoecología de los paisajes en el Departamento Minas (Provincia de Neuquén), con vistas a estudiar la estructura y funcionamiento de los paisajes, herramienta fundamental para comprender el fenómeno de la degradación de la tierra. El objetivo central de este trabajo consiste en estudiar la degradación de los paisajes de este lugar a partir de los preceptos de la geoecología, con apoyo de los Sistemas de Información Geográfica y la teledetección, estableciendo índices diagnósticos que reflejen la interacción e interdependencia entre los componentes naturales y sociales del paisaje. El estudio de los paisajes brinda la posibilidad de integrar transdisciplinariamente los conocimientos y percepciones de la diversidad geoecológica y socioeconómica desde una perspectiva dinámica. Mediante este análisis se puede arribar al conocimiento de las formas de ocupación y conservación de los recursos naturales procurando la protección de la oferta ecológica a largo plazo. El paisaje geográfico o geosistema se concibe como "un sistema espacio-temporal, complejo y abierto, que se origina y evoluciona justamente en la interfase naturaleza-sociedad, en un constante estado de intercambio de energía, materia e información, donde su estructura, funcionamiento, dinámica y evolución reflejan la interacción entre los componentes naturales (abióticos y bióticos), técnico-económicos y socio-culturales (Mateo, J. 1991; Salinas. E. 1991y 1997). Se trata de una formación socio-natural que constituye una categoría científica y como tal, será adoptada en este trabajo.

Effectiveness of Low-Cost Planting Techniques for Improving Water Availability to Olea europaea Seedlings in Degraded Drylands

Reforestation projects in semiarid lands often yield poor results. Water scarcity, poor soil fertility, and structure strongly limit the survival and growth of planted seedlings in these areas. At two experimental semiarid sites, we evaluated a variety of low-cost planting techniques in order to increase water availability to plants. Treatments included various combinations of traditional planting holes; water-harvesting microcatchments; stone or plastic mulches; small waterproof sheets to increase water harvesting; dry wells; buried clay pots; and deep irrigation. Some of these treatments were also combined with addition of composted biosolids. Waterproof sheets significantly enhanced water harvesting (43%) and soil moisture in the planting hole (40%), especially for low-intensity rainfall events. Treatment effects on the survival and growth of Olea europaea seedlings varied between experimental sites. At the most water-limited site, clay pots, and dry wells improved seedling survival, while no treatment enhanced seedling growth. At the least water-stressed site, the application of composted sludge significantly improved seedling growth. We conclude that nutrient-mediated stress is subordinate to water stress in arid and semiarid environments, and we suggest modifications on the microsite scale to address these limiting conditions in Mediterranean drylands.

(Table 2) Distribution of phytoliths in selected samples from DSDP Site 90-591

Phytoliths are described from deep sea sediments at Site 591 in the southwestern Pacific. Their regional distribution is related to the arid and semiarid regions of Australia, from where they were blown by westerly winds into the Tasman Sea area. The stratigraphic record ranges from the middle Miocene, at about 14.4 m.y., until the early Pleistocene. A distinct increase in frequencies observed during the Pliocene and a maximum at about 2.5 m.y. coincide with important trends in paleogeography and paleoclimatology: the development of the Antarctic ice cap, the northward drift of the Australian Plate, and the generation of arid conditions on the Australian continent.

Crescimento inicial e morfologia foliar em plantas de Mimosa caesalpiniaefolia Benth. Em função do manejo microbiano, sob estresse salino

The sabiá (Mimosa caesalpiniaefolia Benth.) is an endemic species of the Caatinga biome, considered tolerant to salt and water stress. The process of salinization of soil and groundwater and surface water is one of the most important problems of environmental degradation, with its harmful effects being more pronounced in the areas of arid and semiarid regions, and rapidly growing in many parts of the globe, causing problems of the major crop yield. Organic conditioners as barnyard manure, and rice hulls can contribute to reducing the PST, possibly due to the release of CO2 and the production of organic acids during the decomposition of organic matter, and act as sources of calcium and magnesium and inhibit the availability sodium. The intimate association of mycorrhizae and beneficial to plants results in increased uptake of water and nutrients by plants, especially phosphorus, due to their low mobility in soil. The objective of this study was to evaluate the initial growth of thrush seedlings under inoculation with mycorrhizal fungi and fertilized with manure corral and irrigated with water of different salinity levels. The experiment was conducted in greenhouse conditions of vegetation on the premises of the Agricultural School of Jundiaí - UFRN, Campus Macaíba. The adopted statistical design was randomized composed of twelve treatments - three substrates (sterile soil, manure and FMA), four salinity levels (0.2, 1.5, 3.0 and 4.5 dS m-1 ) and five repetitions, totaling sixty experimental units. The results indicate that inoculation with mycorrhizal fungi own contributions to the growth of plants, especially in roots and shoots, which suggests that its application is beneficial in establishing thrush plants in natural conditions, with poor soil in P. Levels salinity caused no effects with statistical significance in plant development, indicating Sabia resistance to it.

Women, environmental changes and forestry-related development : Gender-affected roles of rural people in land degradation and environmental rehabilitation in a dry region of Sudan

The purpose of the present study was to increase understanding of the interaction of rural people and, specifically, women with the environment in a dry area in Sudan. The study that included both nomadic pastoralists and farmers aimed at answering two main research questions, namely: What kinds of roles have the local people, and the women in particular, had in land degradation in the study area and what kinds of issues would a gender-sensitive, forestry-related environmental rehabilitation intervention need to consider there? The study adopted the definition of land degradation as proposed by the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), which describes land degradation as reduction or loss the biological or economic productivity and complexity of land in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas. The Convention perceives desertification as land degradation. The dry study area in Sudan, South of the Sahara, has been the subject of land degradation or desertification discussions since the 1970s, and other studies have been also conducted to assess the degradation in the area. Nevertheless, the exact occurrence, scale and local significance of land degradation in the area is still unclear. This study explored how the rural population whose livelihood depended on the area, perceived environmental changes occurring there and compared their conceptions with other sources of information of the area such as research reports. The main fieldwork methods included interviews with open-ended questions and observation of people and the environment. The theoretical framework conceptualised the rural population as land users whose choices of environmental activities are affected by multiple factors in the social and biophysical contexts in which they live. It was emphasised that these factors have their own specific characteristics in different contexts, simultaneously recognising that there are also factors that generally affect environmental practices in various areas such as the land users' environmental literacy (conceptions of the environment), gender and livelihood needs. The people studied described that environmental changes, such as reduced vegetation cover and cropland production, had complicated the maintenance of their livelihoods in the study area. Some degraded sites were also identified through observations during the fieldwork. Whether a large-scale reduction of cropland productivity had occurred in the farmers' croplands remained, however, unclear. The study found that the environmental impact of the rural women's activities varied and was normally limited. The women's most significant environmental impact resulted from their cutting of trees, which was likely to contribute, at least in some places, to land degradation, affecting the environment together with climate and livestock. However, when a wider perspective is taken, it becomes questionable whether the women have really played roles in land degradation, since gender, poverty and the need to maintain livelihood had caused them to conduct environmentally harmful activities. The women have had, however, no power to change the causes of their activities. The findings further suggested that an inadequate availability of food was the most critical problem in the study area. Therefore, an environmental programme in the area was suggested to include technical measures to increase the productivity of croplands, opportunities for income generation and readiness to co-operate with other programmes to improve the local people's abilities to maintain their livelihoods. In order to protect the environment and alleviate the women's work burden, the introduction of fuel-saving stoves was also suggested. Furthermore, it was suggested that increased planting of trees on homesteads would be supported by an easy availability of tree seedlings. Planting trees on common property land was, however, perceived as extremely demanding in the study area, due to scarcity of such land. In addition, it became apparent that the local land users, and women in particular, needed to allocate their labour to maintain the immediate livelihood of their families and were not motivated to allocate their labour solely for environmental rehabilitation. Nonetheless, from the point of view of the existing social structures, women's active participation in a community-based environmental programme would be rather natural, particularly among the farmer women who had already formed a women's group and participated in communal decision making. Forming of a women group or groups was suggested to further support both the farmer women's and pastoral women's active participation within an environmental programme and their general empowerment. An Environmental programme would need to acknowledge that improving rural people's well-being and maintaining their livelihood in the study area requires development and co-operation with various sectors in Sudan.

Epidemiological aspects of astrovirus and coronavirus in poults in the South Eastern Region of Brazil

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

The flora and communities Carnaubal Palm Forest in the northern region of Ceará - Brazil

The “dicótilo-palmácea” mixed forest is found in the fluvial plains (floodplains) of watercourses on the Ceará semiarid region (Brazil), distinguishing from the surrounding vegetation (caatinga) by the prevalence of larger tree species. In the river’s margins, presenting high variability in the extension of the riverbanks, arise floodplains in pedologic complexes mainly composed by neossols and argissols, resulting from the deposition of sediments. In these areas of high fertility soils and subjected to flooding during part of the year, it develops a particular type of riparian vegetation dominated by carnauba palm tree (Copernicia prunifera (Mill.) H.E. Moore) forming a particular type of riparian forest, designated by carnaubal palm forest. We aimed to carry out floristic and phytosociological surveys of carnauba palm forests located in the northern region of Ceará. The classical sigmatist method of Braun-Blanquet was applied and classification analysis (Twinspan) was perfomed. The field work occurred in March 2014 and 2016 in eight areas: Fazenda Pedra Branca (03º 37’ 10’’ S e 40º 18’ 30’’ W, 104 m asl), Vale do Rio Bom Jesus (04º 04’ 42’’ S e 39º 57’ 08’’ W, 200 m asl), Lagoa do Peixe (03º 56’ 28’’ S e 40º 23’ 23’’ W, 97 m asl), Fazenda Peixes (04º 06’ 03’’ S e 40º 32’ 43’’ W, 114 m asl), Fazenda Natividade (04º 02’ 50’’ S e 40º 29’ 03’’ W, 109 m asl), Fazenda Morro Alto (02º 53’ 42’’ S e 39º 54’ 51’’ W, 16 m asl), Fazenda Araticum (03º 04’ 58’’ S e 40º 09’ 36’’ W, 19 m asl) and Fazenda Experimental da UVA (03º 37' 04'' S 40º 18' 18'' W, 200 m asl).The floristic list consists of 170 species, distributed between 127 genera and 50 families. Twenty-seven Brazilian endemic species were identified, from which 8 are exclusive of the Caatinga biome. The Fabaceae was the most representative family, with the highest number of species (28), followed by Poaceae (17), Malvaceaea (14), Euphorbiaceae (12), Asteraceaea (9), Convolvulaceae and Rubiaceae (9). The dominant life forms were therophytes (34%), phanerophytes (30%) and chamaephytes (18%). Two communities were identified as a result of the classification analysis using the Twinspan.

Radiological aspects of petroleum exploration and production in the sultanate of Oman

This thesis is a study of naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM) activity concentration, gamma dose rate and radon (222Rn) exhalation from the waste streams of large-scale onshore petroleum operations. Types of activities covered included; sludge recovery from separation tanks, sludge farming, NORM storage, scaling in oil tubulars, scaling in gas production and sedimentation in produced water evaporation ponds. Field work was conducted in the arid desert terrain of an operational oil exploration and production region in the Sultanate of Oman. The main radionuclides found were 226Ra and 210Pb (238U - series), 228Ra and 228Th (232Th - series), and 227Ac (235U - series), along with 40K. All activity concentrations were higher than the ambient soil level and varied over several orders of magnitude. The range of gamma dose rates at a 1 m height above ground for the farm treated sludge had a range of 0.06 0.43 µSv h 1, and an average close to the ambient soil mean of 0.086 ± 0.014 µSv h 1, whereas the untreated sludge gamma dose rates had a range of 0.07 1.78 µSv h 1, and a mean of 0.456 ± 0.303 µSv h 1. The geometric mean of ambient soil 222Rn exhalation rate for area surrounding the sludge was mBq m 2 s 1. Radon exhalation rates reported in oil waste products were all higher than the ambient soil value and varied over three orders of magnitude. This study resulted in some unique findings including: (i) detection of radiotoxic 227Ac in the oil scales and sludge, (ii) need of a new empirical relation between petroleum sludge activity concentrations and gamma dose rates, and (iii) assessment of exhalation of 222Rn from oil sludge. Additionally the study investigated a method to determine oil scale and sludge age by the use of inherent behaviour of radionuclides as 228Ra:226Ra and 228Th:228Ra activity ratios.

Social networks in arid Australia : a review of concepts and evidence

Arid systems are markedly different from non-arid systems. This distinctiveness extends to arid-social networks, by which we mean social networks which are influenced by the suite of factors driving arid and semi-arid regions. Neither the process of how aridity interacts with social structure, nor what happens as a result of this interaction, is adequately understood. This paper postulates three relative characteristics which make arid-social networks distinct: that they are tightly bound, are hierarchical in structure and, hence, prone to power abuses, and contain a relatively higher proportion of weak links, making them reactive to crisis. These ideas were modified from workshop discussions during 2006. Although they are neither tested nor presented as strong beliefs, they are based on the anecdotal observations of arid-system scientists with many years of experience. This paper does not test the ideas, but rather examines them in the context of five arid-social network case studies with the aim of hypotheses building. Our cases are networks related to pastoralism, Aboriginal outstations, the ‘Far West Coast Aboriginal Enterprise Network’ and natural resources in both the Lake-Eyre basin and the Murray–Darling catchment. Our cases highlight that (1) social networks do not have clear boundaries, and that how participants perceive their network boundaries may differ from what network data imply, (2) although network structures are important determinants of system behaviour, the role of participants as individuals is still pivotal, (3) and while in certain arid cases weak links are engaged in crisis, the exact structure of all weak links in terms of how they place participants in relation to other communities is what matters.

Structure of ant assemblages in Western Ghats, India: role of habitat, disturbance and introduced species

1. Habitat fragmentation, anthropogenic disturbance and the introduction of invasive species are factors thought to structure ant assemblages. To understand responses of the ant community to changes in the environment, ants are commonly categorised into functional groups, a scheme developed and based on Australian ants. 2. Behaviourally dominant and aggressive ants of the dominant dolichoderinae functional group have been suggested to structure the ant assemblages in arid and semi-arid habitats of these regions. Given the limited geographical distribution of dominant dolichoderinae, it is crucial to determine the responses of the ant community to changes in the environment in their absence. 3. This study addresses this less studied aspect by considering the associations of ants of Western Ghats, India, with habitat, anthropogenic disturbance and introduced ants. We determined how ant functional groups respond to these factors in this region, where dominant dolichoderines are naturally absent, and whether responses are consistent with predictions derived from the ant functional group scheme. 4. This study provides new information on ant assemblages in a little-studied region. As in other parts of the world, ant assemblages in Western Ghats were strongly influenced by habitat and disturbance, with different functional groups associated with different habitats and levels of disturbance. 5. No functional group showed evidence of being influenced by the abundance of introduced species. In addition, predictions of negative interactions between functional groups were not supported. Our findings suggest that abiotic factors are universal determinants of ant assemblage structure, but that competitive interactions may not be.

Anthropogenic aerosol fraction over Afro-Asian regions inferred using Kalpana-I and MISR data

Mineral dust constitutes the single largest contributor of natural aerosols over continents. The first step towards separating natural aerosol radiative impact from its anthropogenic counterparts over continents is to gather information on dust aerosols. The infrared (IR) radiance (10.5-12.5 mu m) acquired from the Kalpana-I satellite (similar to 8-km resolution) was used to retrieve regional characteristics of dust aerosols over the Afro-Asian region during the winter of 2004, coinciding with a national aerosol campaign. Here, we used aerosol-induced IR radiance depression as an index of dust load. The regional distribution of dust over various arid and semi-arid regions of India and adjacent continents has been estimated, and these data in conjunction with regional maps of column aerosol optical depth (AOD) are used to infer anthropogenic aerosol fraction. Surprisingly, even over desert locations in India and Saudi Arabia, the anthropogenic fraction was relatively high (similar to 0.3 to 0.4) and the regionally averaged anthropogenic fraction over India was 0.62 +/- 0.06.

Groundwater Management in India:Physical, Institutional and Policy Alternatives

Groundwater constitutes a vital natural resource for sustaining India’s agricultural economy and meeting the country’s social, ecological and environmental goals. It is a unique resource, widely available, providing security against droughts and yet it is closely linked to surface-water resources and the hydrological cycle. Its availability depends on geo-hydrological conditions and characteristics of aquifers, from deep to alluvium, sediment crystalline rocks to basalt formations; and agro-climate from humid to subhumid and semi-arid to arid. Its reliable supply, uniform quality and temperature, relative turbidity, pollution-safe, minimal evaporation losses, and low cost of development are attributes making groundwater more attractive compared to other resources. It plays a key role in the provision of safe drinking water to rural populations. For example, already almost 80% of domestic water use in rural areas in India is groundwater-supplied, and much of it is being supplied to farms, villages and small towns. Inadequate control of the use of groundwater, indiscriminate application of agrochemicals and unrestrained pollution of the rural environment by other human activities make groundwater usage unsustainable, necessitating proper management in the face of the twin demand for water of good quality for domestic supply and adequate supply for irrigation, ensuring equity, efficiency and sustainability of the resource. Groundwater irrigation has overtaken surface irrigation in the early 1980s, supported by well energization. It is estimated that there are about 24 million energised wells and tube wells now and it is driven by demand rather than availability, evident through the greater occurrence of wells in districts with high population densities. Apart from aquifer characteristics, land fragmentation and landholding size are the factors that decide the density of wells. The ‘rise and fall’ of local economies dependent on groundwater can be summarized as: the green revolution of 1980s, groundwaterbased agrarian boom, early symptoms of groundwater overdraft, and decline of the groundwater socio-ecology. The social characteristics and policy interventions typical of each stage provide a fascinating insight into the human-resource dynamics. This book is a compilation of nine research papers discussing various aspects of groundwater management. It attempts to integrate knowledge about the physical system, the socio-economic system, the institutional set-up and the policy environment to come out with a more realistic analysis of the situation with regard to the nature, characteristics and intensity of resource use, the size of the economy the use generates, and the negative socioeconomic consequences. Complex variables addressed in this regard focusing on northern Gujarat are the stock of groundwater available in the region, its hydrodynamics, its net outflows against inflows, the economics of its intensive use (particularly irrigation in semi-arid and arid regions), its criticality in the regional hydroecological regime, ethical aspects and social aspects of its use. The first chapter by Dinesh Kumar and Singh, dwells on complex groundwater socio-ecology of India, while emphasizing the need for policy measures to address indiscriminate over-exploitation of dwindling resources. The chapter also explores the nature of groundwater economy and the role of electricity prices on it. The next chapter on groundwater issue in north Gujarat provides a description of groundwater resource characteristics followed by a detailed analysis of the groundwater depletion and quality deterioration problems in the region and their undesirable consequences on the economy, ecosystem health and the society. Considering water-buyers and wellowning farmers individually, a methodology for economic valuation of groundwater in regions where its primary usage is in agriculture, and as assessment of the groundwater economy based on case studies from north Gujarat is presented in the fourth chapter. The next chapter focuses on the extent of dependency of milk production on groundwater, which includes the water embedded in green and dry fodder and animal feed. The study made a realistic estimate of irrigation water productivity in terms of the physics and economics of milk production. The sixth chapter analyses the extent of reduction in water usage, increase in yield and overall increase in physical productivity of alfalfa with the use of the drip irrigation system. The chapter also provides a detailed synthesis of the costs and benefits associated with the use of drip irrigation systems. A linear programmingbased optimization model with the objective to minimize groundwater use taking into account the interaction between two distinct components – farming and dairying under the constraints of food security and income stability for different scenarios, including shift in cropping pattern, introduction of water-efficient crops, water- saving technologies in addition to the ‘business as usual’ scenario is presented in the seventh chapter. The results show that sustaining dairy production in the region with reduced groundwater draft requires crop shifts and adoption of water-saving technologies. The eighth chapter provides evidences to prove that the presence of adequate economic incentive would encourage farmers to adopt water-saving irrigation devices, based on the findings of market research with reference to the level of awareness among farmers of technologies and the factors that decide the adoption of water-saving technologies. However, now the marginal cost of using electricity for agricultural pumping is almost zero. The economic incentives are strong and visible only when the farmers are either water-buyers or have to manage irrigation with limited water from tube-well partnerships. The ninth chapter explores the socio-economic viability of increasing the power tariff and inducing groundwater rationing as a tool for managing energy and groundwater demand, considering the current estimate of the country’s annual economic loss of Rs 320 billion towards electricity subsidy in the farm sector. The tenth chapter suggests private tradable property rights and development of water markets as the institutional tool for achieving equity, efficiency and sustainability of groundwater use. It identifies the externalities for local groundwater management and emphasizes the need for managing groundwater by local user groups, supported by a thorough analysis of groundwater socio-ecology in India. An institutional framework for managing the resource based on participatory approach that is capable of internalizing the externalities, comprising implementation of institutional and technical alternatives for resource management is also presented. Major findings of the analyses and key arguments in each chapter are summarized in the concluding chapter. Case studies of the social and economic benefits of groundwater use, where that use could be described as unsustainable, are interesting. The benefits of groundwater use are outlined and described with examples of social and economic impacts of groundwater and the negative aspects of groundwater development with the compilation of environmental problems based on up-to-date research results. This publication with a well-edited compilation of case studies is informative and constitutes a useful publication for students and professionals.

Characterization of groundwater chemistry under the influence of lithologic and anthropogenic factors along a climatic gradient in Upper Cauvery basin, South India

Hydrogeological and climatic effect on chemical behavior of groundwater along a climatic gradient is studied along a river basin. `Semi-arid' (500-800 mm of mean annual rainfall), `sub-humid' (800-1,200 mm/year) and `humid' (1,200-1,500 mm/year) are the climatic zones chosen along the granito-gneissic plains of Kabini basin in South India for the present analysis. Data on groundwater chemistry is initially checked for its quality using NICB ratio (<+/- 5 %), EC versus TZ+ (similar to 0.85 correlation), EC versus TDS and EC versus TH analysis. Groundwater in the three climatic zones is `hard' to `very hard' in terms of Ca-Mg hardness. Polluted wells are identified (> 40 % of pollution) and eliminated for the characterization. Piper's diagram with mean concentrations indicates the evolution of CaNaHCO3 (semi-arid) from CaHCO3 (humid zone) along the climatic gradient. Carbonates dominate other anions and strong acids exceeded weak acids in the region. Mule Hole SEW, an experimental watershed in sub-humid zone, is characterized initially using hydrogeochemistry and is observed to be a replica of entire sub-humid zone (with 25 wells). Extension of the studies for the entire basin (120 wells) showed a chemical gradient along the climatic gradient with sub-humid zone bridging semi-arid and humid zones. Ca/Na molar ratio varies by more than 100 times from semi-arid to humid zones. Semi-arid zone is more silicaceous than sub-humid while humid zone is more carbonaceous (Ca/Cl similar to 14). Along the climatic gradient, groundwater is undersaturated (humid), saturated (sub-humid) and slightly supersaturated (semi-arid) with calcite and dolomite. Concentration-depth profiles are in support of the geological stratification i.e., not approximate to 18 m of saprolite and similar to 25 m of fracture rock with parent gneiss beneath. All the wells are classified into four groups based on groundwater fluctuations and further into `deep' and `shallow' based on the depth to groundwater. Higher the fluctuations, larger is its impact on groundwater chemistry. Actual seasonal patterns are identified using `recharge-discharge' concept based on rainfall intensity instead of traditional monsoon-non-monsoon concept. Non-pumped wells have low Na/Cl and Ca/Cl ratios in recharge period than in discharge period (Dilution). Few other wells, which are subjected to pumping, still exhibit dilution chemistry though water level fluctuations are high due to annual recharge. Other wells which do not receive sufficient rainfall and are constantly pumped showed high concentrations in recharge period rather than in discharge period (Anti-dilution). In summary, recharge-discharge concept demarcates the pumped wells from natural deep wells thus, characterizing the basin.