Túneles en macizos calcáreos karstificados: impacto en las obras subterráneas de los fenómenos kársticos, su evaluación y tratamiento

En esta Tesis Doctoral se aborda un tema poco estudiado en el ámbito de los túneles y cuya problemática está basada en los riesgos e incertidumbres que representa el diseño y ejecución de túneles en macizos calizos karstificados. Mediante un estudio profundo del comportamiento de distintos casos reales de túneles en macizos kársticos calizos, aportando la realización de modelos y la experiencia constructiva del autor, se pretende proponer un procedimiento que permita sistematizar las actuaciones, investigación, evaluación y tratamiento en los túneles en karst, como herramienta básica para la toma de decisiones primarias correctas. Además, se proponen herramientas que pueden ayudar a mejorar el diseño y a decidir las medidas más eficientes para afrontar los problemas que genera el karst en los túneles, minimizando los riesgos para todos los actores, su probabilidad e impacto. Se profundiza en tres fases principales (que son referidas en la tesis en cuatro Partes): La INVESTIGACIÓN del macizo rocoso: La investigación engloba todas las actuaciones observacionales encaminadas a obtener el IK (Índice de Karstificación), así como las investigaciones necesarias mediante recopilación de datos superficiales, hidrogeológicos, climáticos, topográficos, así como los datos de investigaciones geofísicas, fotointerpretación, sondeos y ensayos geotécnicos que sean posibles. Mediante la misma, se debe alcanzar un conocimiento suficiente para llevar a cabo la determinación de la Caracterización geomecánica básica del macizo rocoso a distintas profundidades, la determinación del Modelo o modo de karstificación del macizo rocoso respecto al túnel y la Zonificación del índice de karstificación en el ámbito de actuación en el que se implantará el túnel. En esta primera fase es necesaria la correcta Definición geométrica y trazado de la obra subterránea: En función de las necesidades que plantee el proyecto y de los condicionantes externos de la infraestructura, se deben establecer los requisitos mínimos de gálibo necesarios, así como las condiciones de máximas pendientes para el trazado en alzado y los radios mínimos de las curvas en planta, en función del procedimiento constructivo y motivación de construcción del túnel (ferrocarril, carretera o hidráulico, etc...). Estas son decisiones estratégicas o primerias para las que se ha de contar con un criterio y datos adecuados. En esta fase, son importantes las decisiones en cuanto a las monteras o profundidades relativas a la karstificación dominante e investigación de las tensiones naturales del macizo, tectónica, así como las dimensiones del túnel en función de las cavidades previstas, tratamientos, proceso de excavación y explotación. En esta decisión se debe definir, conocida ya de forma parcial la geotecnia básica, el procedimiento de excavación en función de las longitudes del túnel y la clasificación geomecánica del terreno, así como sus monteras mínimas, accesos y condicionantes medioambientales, pero también en función de la hidrogeología. Se establecerá la afección esperable en el túnel, identificando en la sectorización del túnel, la afección esperable de forma general para las secciones pésimas del túnel. Con todos estos datos, en esta primera aproximación, es posible realizar el inventario de casos posibles a lo largo del trazado, para poder, posteriormente, minimizar el número de casos con mayores riesgos (técnicos, temporales o económicos) que requieran de tratamiento. Para la fase de EVALUACIÓN de la matriz de casos posibles en función del trazado inicial escogido (que puede estar ya impuesto por el proyecto, si no se ha podido intervenir en dicha fase), es necesario valorar el comportamiento teórico del túnel en toda su longitud, estudiando las secciones concretas según el tipo y el modo de afección (CASOS) y todo ello en función de los resultados de los estudios realizados en otros túneles. Se debe evaluar el riesgo para cada uno de los casos en función de las longitudes de túnel que se esperan que sean afectadas y el proceso constructivo y de excavación que se vaya a adoptar, a veces varios. Es importante tener en cuenta la existencia o no de agua o relleno arcilloso o incluso heterogéneo en las cavidades, ya que los riesgos se multiplican, así mismo se tendrá en cuenta la estabilidad del frente y del perímetro del túnel. En esta segunda fase se concluirá una nueva matriz con los resultados de los riesgos para cada uno de los casos que se presentarán en el túnel estudiado. El TRATAMIENTO, que se debe proponer al mismo tiempo que una serie de actuaciones para cada uno de los casos (combinación de tipos y modos de afección), debiendo evaluar la eficacia y eficiencia, es decir la relevancia técnica y económica, y como se pueden optimizar los tratamientos. Si la tabla de riesgos que se debe generar de nuevo introduciendo los factores técnicos y económicos no resulta aceptable, será necesaria la reconsideración de los parámetros determinados en fases anteriores. Todo el desarrollo de estas tres etapas se ha recogido en 4 partes, en la primera parte se establece un método de estudio e interpretativo de las investigaciones superficiales y geotécnicas, denominado índice de karstificación. En la segunda parte, se estudia la afección a las obras subterráneas, modelos y tipos de afección, desde un punto de vista teórico. La tercera parte trata de una recopilación de casos reales y las consecuencias extraídas de ellos. Y finalmente, la cuarta parte establece los tratamientos y actuaciones para el diseño y ejecución de túneles en macizos kársticos calizos. Las novedades más importantes que presenta este trabajo son: El estudio de los casos de túneles realizados en karst calizo. Propuesta de los tratamientos más efectivos en casos generales. La evaluación de riesgos en función de las tipologías de túnel y afecciones en casos generales. La propuesta de investigación superficial mediante el índice de karstificación observacional. La evaluación mediante modelos del comportamiento teórico de los túneles en karst para casos muy generales de la influencia de la forma, profundidad y desarrollo de la karstificación. In this doctoral thesis is studied the recommended investigation, evaluation and treatment when a tunnel is planed and constructed in karstic calcareous rock masses. Calcareous rock masses were selected only because the slow disolution produces stable conduct and caves instead the problems of sudden disolutions. Karstification index (IK) that encompasses various aspects of research karstic rock mass is presented. The karst rock masses are all unique and there are no similarities between them in size or density cavities ducts, but both their formation mechanisms, like, geological and hydrogeological geomorphological evidence allow us, through a geomechanical survey and geological-photo interpretation in the surface, establish a karst evaluation index specific for tunnelling, which allows us to set a ranking of the intensity of karstification and the associated stadistic to find caves and its risk in tunnelling. This index is estimated and useful for decision-making and evaluation of measures to be considered in the design of a tunnel and is set in degrees from 0 to 100, with similar to the RMR degrees. The sectorization of the tunnel section and the types of condition proposed in this thesis, are estimated also useful to understand the different effects that interception of ducts and cavities may have in the tunnel during construction and service life. Simplified calculations using two-dimensional models contained in the thesis, have been done to establish the relationship between the position of the cavities relative to the section of the tunnel and its size in relation to the safety factors for each ground conditions, cover and natural stresses. Study of over 100 cases of tunnels that have intercepted cavities or karst conduits have been used in this thesis and the list of risks found in these tunnels have been related as well. The most common and effective treatments are listed and finally associated to the models and type of affection generated to give the proper tool to help in the critical decision when the tunnels intercept cavities. Some existing studies from Marinos have been considered for this document. The structure of the thesis is mainly divided 4 parts included in 3 steps: The investigation, the evaluation and the treatments, which match with the main steps needed for the critical decisions to be made during the design and construction of tunnels in karstic rockmasses, very important to get a successfully project done.

Experimental surgery to create subgenomes of Bacillus subtilis 168

The 4,188-kb circular genome of Bacillus subtilis 168 was artificially dissected into two stable circular chromosomes in vivo, one being the 3,878-kb main genome and the other the 310-kb subgenome that was recovered as covalently closed circular DNA in CsCl-ethidium bromide ultracentrifugation. The minimal requirements to physically separate the 310-kb DNA segment out of the genome were two interrepeat homologous sequences and an origin of DNA replication between them. The subgenome originated from the 1,255–1,551-kb region of the B. subtilis genome was essential for the cell to survive because the subgenome was not lost from the cell. The finding that the B. subtilis genome has a potential to be divided and the resulting two replicons stably maintained may shed light on origins and formation mechanisms of giant plasmids or second chromosomes present in many bacteria. Similar excision or its reversal process, i.e., integration of large sized covalently closed circular DNA pieces into the main genome, implies significant roles of subgenomes in the exchange of genetic information and size variation of bacterial genomes in bacterial evolution.

When Spanish owns English words

The English language and the Internet, both separately and taken together, are nowadays well-acknowledged as powerful forces which influence and affect the lexico-grammatical characteristics of other languages world-wide. In fact, many authors like Crystal (2004) have pointed out the emergence of the so-called Netspeak, that is, the language used in the Net or World Wide Web; as Crystal himself (2004: 19) puts it, ‘a type of language displaying features that are unique to the Internet […] arising out of its character as a medium which is electronic, global and interactive’. This ‘language’, however, may be differently understood: either as an adaptation of the English language proper to internet requirements and purposes, or as a new and rapidly-changing and developing language as a result of a rapid evolution or adaptation to Internet requirements of almost all world languages, for whom English is a trendsetter. If the second and probably most plausible interpretation is adopted, there are three salient features of ‘Netspeak’: (a) the rapid expansion of all its new linguistic developments thanks to the Internet itself, which may lead to the generalization and widespread acceptance of new words, coinages, or meanings, hundreds of times faster than was the case with the printed media. As said above, (b) the visible influence of English, the most prevalent language on the Internet. Consequently, (c) this new language tends to reduce the ‘distance’ between English and other languages as well as the ignorance of the former by speakers of other languages, since the ‘Netspeak’ version of the latter adopts grammatical, syntactic and lexical features of English. Thus, linguistic differences may even disappear when code-switching and/or borrowing occurs, as whole fragments of English appear in other language contexts. As a consequence of the new situation, an ideal context appears for interlanguage or multilingual word formation to thrive: puns, blends, compounds and word creativity in general find in the web the ideal place to gain rapid acceptance world-wide, as a result of fashion, coincidence, or sheer merit of the new linguistic proposals.

Blending in English Charactoons

This article deals with both the word-formation mechanism of blending and the creative process involved in providing characters with proper names in cartoons or TV series for children in English. The study addresses the nature and features of proper and common names, two apparently well-distinguished categories, as well as, and basically fictional proper names, by suggesting differences between fictional proper names and other types of proper and common names. Furthermore, it discusses the presence of blending in fiction and in fictional proper names, with special reference to charactonyms. The main focus of this work is on blended charactonyms in cartoons addressed to children, which for the purposes of this study will be called cartoonyms or charactoons. Questions such as the following are addressed: the formation or creation of cartoonyms or charactoons from pre-existing material; the semantic motivations behind their formation; their resulting structural complexity; their particularly descriptive, expressive and meaningful nature; as well as how suitable they are to the genre in which they are used.

Hydrothermal control on organic matter alteration and illite precipitation, Mt Isa Basin, Australia

Abundant illite precipitation, in Proterozoic rocks from Northern Lawn Hill Platform, Mt Isa Basin, Australia, occurred in organic matter-rich black shales rather than in sandstones, siltstones and organic matter-poor shales. Sandstones and siltstones acted as impermeable rocks, as early diagenetic quartz and carbonate minerals reduced the porosity-permeability. Scanning and transmission electron microscopy (SEM and TEM) studies indicate a relation between creation of microporosity-permeability and organic matter alteration, suitable for subsequent mineral precipitation. K-Ar data indicate that organic matter alteration and the subsequent illite precipitation within the organic matter occurred during the regional hydrothermal event at 1172 +/- 150 (2sigma) Ma. Hot circulating fluids are considered to be responsible for organic matter alteration, migration and removal of volatile hydrocarbon, and consequently porosity-permeability creation. Those rocks lacking sufficient porosity-permeability, such as sandstones, siltstones and organic matter poor shales, may not have been affected by fluid movement. In hydrothermal systems, shales and mudstones may not be impermeable as usually assumed because of hydrocarbons being rapidly removed by fluid, even with relatively low total organic carbon.

Identification of the causes of subsoil ammonium accumulations in southeastern Queensland

Unusually high concentrations of exchangeable-NH4+ (up to 270 kg-N/ha) were observed in a Vertisol below 1 m in southeast Queensland. This study aimed to identify the source of this NH4+. Preliminary sampling of native vegetation and cropping areas had found that elevated NH4+was only present under cropped soil, indicating that clearing was linked to the NH4+formation. Mechanisms of NH4+formation that may have occurred in the subsoil after clearing were hypothesised to be a) mineralisation of organic-N; b) NO3- reduction to NH4+; and/or c) the release of fixed-NH4+. In addition it was proposed that nitrification was inhibited in the subsoil, and that this allowed any NH4+formed to accumulate over time. Incubation experiments to examine nitrification rates revealed that nitrification was undetectable, and appeared to be limited by a combination of subsoil acidity and low numbers of nitrifying organisms. Mineralisation studies also revealed that the mineralisation of organic-N was undetectable, and that mineralising organisms were limited by acidity. A small amount of nitrate ammonification could be observed with the aid of a 15N tracer if the soil was waterlogged. However, this NH4+was insufficient to account for the overall NH4+accumulation, and these waterlogged conditions were not observed in the field. Concentrations of fixed- NH4+ measured were also too low to have been responsible for the accumulation of exchangeable-NH4+. It was concluded that none of the proposed hypotheses of NH4+formation could account for the NH4+accumulation observed.

Geochemical analysis of two sediment cores from the southern Mendeleev Ridge

We present results of an inorganic geochemical pore water and sediment study conducted on Quaternary sediments from the western Arctic Ocean. The sediment cores were recovered in 2008 from the southern Mendeleev Ridge during RV Polarstern Expedition ARK-XXIII/3. With respect to sediment sources and depositional processes, peaks in Ca/Al, Mg/Al, Sr/Al and Sr/Mg indicate enhanced input of both ice-rafted (mainly dolomite) and biogenic carbonate during deglacial warming phases. Distinct and repetitive brown layers enriched in Mn (oxyhydr)oxides occur mostly in association with these carbonate-rich intervals. For the first time, we show that the brown layers are also consistently enriched in scavenged trace metals Co, Cu, Mo and Ni. The bioturbation patterns of the brown layers, specifically well-defined brown burrows into the underlying sediments, support formation close to the sediment-water interface. The Mn and trace metal enrichments were probably initiated under warmer climate conditions. Both river runoff and melting sea ice delivered trace metals to the Arctic Ocean, but also enhanced seasonal productivity and organic matter export to the sea floor. As Mn (oxyhydr)oxides and scavenged trace metals were deposited at the sea floor, a co-occurring organic matter "pulse" triggered intense diagenetic Mn cycling at the sediment-water interface. These processes resulted in the formation of Mn and trace metal enrichments, but almost complete organic matter degradation. As warmer conditions ceased, reduced riverine runoff and/or a solid sea ice cover terminated the input of riverine trace metal and fresh organic matter, and greyish-yellowish sediments poor in Mn and trace metals were deposited. Oxygen depletion of Arctic bottom waters as potential cause for the lack of Mn enrichments during glacial intervals is highly improbable. While the original composition and texture of the brown layers resulted from specific climatic conditions (including transient Mn redox cycling at the sediment-water interface), pore water data show that early diagenetic Mn redistribution is still affecting the organic-poor sediments in several meters depth. Given persistent steady state diagenetic conditions, purely authigenic Mn-rich brown layers may form, while others may completely vanish. The degree of diagenetic Mn redistribution largely depends on the depositional environment within the Arctic Ocean, the availability of Mn and organic matter, and seems to be recorded by the Co/Mo ratios of single Mn-rich layers. We conclude that brown Arctic sediment layers are not necessarily synchronous features, and correlating them across different parts of the Arctic Ocean without additional age control is not recommended.

Geochemistry of sheeted dike complex minerals of ODP Hole 140-504B

Diabases were recovered during Legs 137 and 140 at Hole 504B from depths between 1621.5 and 2000.4 meters below seafloor in the lower sheeted dike complex. The samples contain multiple generations of millimetric to centimetric veins. The orientation of the measured veins suggests that two main vein sets exist: one characterized by shallow dipping and the other by random trend. Thermal contraction during rock cooling is considered the main mechanism responsible for fracture formation. Vein infill is related to the circulation of hydrothermal fluids near the spreading axis. Some veins are surrounded by millimeter-sized alteration halos due to fluid percolation from the fractures through the host rock. Vein-filling minerals are essentially amphibole, chlorite, and zeolites. Amphibole composition is controlled by the microstructural site of the rock. Actinolite is the main amphibole occurring in the veins and also in the groundmass away from the halos. In the alteration halos, amphibole shows composition of actinolitic hornblende and Mg-hornblende. Late-stage tension gashes and interstitial spaces in some amphibole-bearing veins are filled with zeolites, suggesting that the veins likely suffered multiple opening stages that record the cooling history of the circulating fluids. Evidence of deformation recorded by the recovered samples seems to be restricted to veins that clearly represent elements of weakness of the rock. On the basis of vein geometry and microstructure we infer structural interpretations for the formation mechanism and for deformation of veins.

(Table 2) Carbonate chemistry and isotopes from northern Cascadia margin samples

Most authigenic carbonates previously recovered from the Cascadia slope have 87Sr/86Sr signatures that reflect shallow precipitation in equilibrium with coeval seawater. There is also evidence for carbonate formation supported by fluids that have been modified by reactions with the incoming Juan de Fuca plate (87Sr/86Sr = 0.7071; Teichert et al., 2005, doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2005.08.002) or with terrigenous turbidites (87Sr/86Sr = 0.70975 to 0.71279; Sample et al., 1993, doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1993)021<0507:CCICFF>2.3.CO;2). We report on the strontium isotopic composition of carbonates and fluids from IODP Site U1329 and nearby Barkley Canyon (offshore Vancouver Island), which have strontium isotope ratios as low as 0.70539. Whereas the strontium and oxygen isotopic compositions of carbonates from paleoseeps in the uplifted Coast Range forearc indicate formation in ambient bottom seawater, several samples from the Pysht/Sooke Fm. show a 87Sr-depleted signal (87Sr/86Sr = 0.70494 and 0.70511) similar to that of the anomalous Site U1329 and Barkley Canyon carbonates. Our data, when analyzed in the context of published elemental and isotopic composition of these carbonates (Joseph et al., 2012, doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2013.01.012 ), point to two formation mechanisms: 1) shallow precipitation driven by the anaerobic oxidation of methane (AOM) with d13C values as low as -50 per mil and contemporaneous 87Sr/86Sr seawater ratios, and 2) carbonate precipitation driven by fluids that have circulated through the oceanic crust, which are depleted in 87Sr. Carbonates formed from the second mechanism precipitate both at depth and at sites of deep-sourced fluid seepage on the seafloor. The 87Sr-depleted carbonates and pore fluids found at Barkley Canyon represent migration of a deep, exotic fluid similar to that found in high permeability conglomerate layers at 188 mbsf of Site U1329, and which may have fed paleoseeps in the Pysht/Sooke Fm. These exotic fluids likely reflect interaction with the 52-57 Ma igneous Crescent Terrane, which supplies fluids with high calcium, manganese and strontium enriched in the non-radiogenic nucleide. Tectonic compression and dehydration reactions then force these fluids updip, where they pick up the thermogenic hydrocarbons and 13C-enriched dissolved inorganic carbon that are manifested in fluids and carbonates sampled at Barkley Canyon and at Site U1329. The Crescent Terrane may have sourced cold seeps in this margin since at least the late Oligocene.