Victims of the White War or Rebellions of the Green Revolution? Bolivian Indigenous Women Prisoners' Position in the "War on Drugs" Explored through a Criminological Gaze

Tässä tutkielmassa tarkastellaan Bolivialaisten naisvankien (alkuperäisväestön) ja globaalin huumesodan ("War on Drugs") välistä yhteyttä. Keskustelu sijoitetaan laajemmin kokan viljelyn politiikkaan ja alkuperäisväestön kulttuuriin. Kokaa viljeleviä köyhiä maalaisia, joista huomattava osa on naisia, on vangittu Boliviassa kiihtyvää tahtia viime vuosikymmeninä. Moni naisista on kokan tuotannossa ja kaupassa mukana, sillä se on monesti ainoa keino taloudelliseen selviämiseen. Yleisesti ottaen naisvangit ja naisrikolliset ovat marginaalinen ilmiö. Kansainvälisesti tarkasteltuna naisvankien suhteellinen osuus koko vankilaväestöstä on noin 5,2 % (keskiarvo). Boliviassa osuus on vaihdellut 6,1 %:n ja 17,1 %:n välillä vuosina 2000-2008. Naisvankien määrä yleisesti ottaen on ollut rajussa kasvussa, suurin syy naisten vangitsemiseen on huumausaineisiin liittyvät rikokset. Näyttää myös siltä että vähemmistöt ja etnisen taustan omaavat henkilöt ovat yliedustettuina vankilaväestössä. Bolivia seuraa tätä kansainvälistä trendiä. Tämä tutkielma on rajattu kysymyksiin Bolivian intiaaniperäisten naisten osuudesta maan huumerikollisuudessa, sekä heidän suhteellisen korkeaa vangitsemisastetta selittäviin yhteiskunnallisiin tekijöihin. Kysymykset sukupuolesta, etnisyydestä ja kokan viljelyn politiikasta ovat keskiössä. Yleisiä kriminologisia teorioita peilataan kriittisesti suhteessa aineistoon ja Bolivian kontekstiin. Huumesodan ja Bolivian ankaran huumelainsäädännön seurauksista keskustellaan kriittisesti, sekä pohditaan köyhän alkuperäisväestön massavangitsemisen tarpeellisuutta. Tutkimuskysymykseni ovat: mitkä tekijät selittävät kohtuullisen korkean intiaaniperäisten naisvankien määrän Boliviassa, ja mikä on heidän asemansa globaalissa huumesodassa? Tutkielmassa on analysoitu kvantitatiivista ja kvalitatiivista aineistoa. Päälähteenä on ollut Bolivian tilastokeskuksen tuottamat rikostilastot. Tutkielman tärkeimpänä löydöksenä voidaan pitää havaintoa, että vastoin tiettyjä olettamuksia, intiaaniperäiset naiset ovat hyvinkin aktiivisia perinteisesti miehisiksi käsitetyillä aloilla kuten rikollisuudessa ja politiikassa. Tutkielmassa osoitetaan myös, että pidätysten määrät ovat moninkertaistuneet muutamassa vuosikymmenessä. Koska kokan viljelyssä on kyse pääasiallisesti taloudellisesta toimeentulosta, tämä tutkielma kysyy, onko hengissä pysyminen rikos?

A canonical formulation of the direct position kinematics problem for a general 6-6 stewart platform

This paper deals with the direct position kinematics problem of a general 6-6 Stewart platform, the complete solution of which is not reported in the literature until now and even establishing the number of possible solutions for the general case has remained an unsolved problem for a long period. Here a canonical formulation of the direct position kinematics problem for a general 6-6 Stewart platform is presented. The kinematic equations are expressed as a system of six quadratic and three linear equations in nine unknowns, which has a maximum of 64 solutions. Thus, it is established that the mechanism, in general, can have up to 64 closures. Further reduction of the system is shown arriving at a set of three quartic equations in three unknowns, the solution of which will yield the assembly configurations of the general Stewart platform with far less computational effort compared to earlier models.

Growth mechanism of phases, Kirkendall voids, marker plane position, and indication of the relative mobilities of the species in the interdiffusion zone

Often, wrong conclusions about the mobilities of species are drawn from the position of the Kirkendall marker plane or voids in the interdiffusion zone. To clarify, I have discussed the growth mechanism of the phases and the position of the marker plane depending on the relative mobilities of the species. The formation of different kinds of voids in the interdiffusion zone is discussed. Further, the microstructure that could be found because of the Kirkendall effect is also explained.

Electrical breakdown of carbon nanotube devices and the predictability of breakdown position

We have investigated electrical transport properties of long (>10 mu m) multiwalled carbon nanotubes (NTs) by dividing individuals into several segments of identical length. Each segment has different resistance because of the random distribution of defect density in an NT and is corroborated by Raman studies. Higher is the resistance, lower is the current required to break the segments indicating that breakdown occurs at the highly resistive segment/site and not necessarily at the middle. This is consistent with the one-dimensional thermal transport model. We have demonstrated the healing of defects by annealing at moderate temperatures or by current annealing. To strengthen our mechanism, we have carried out electrical breakdown of nitrogen doped NTs (NNTs) with diameter variation from one end to the other. It reveals that the electrical breakdown occurs selectively at the narrower diameter region. Overall, we believe that our results will help to predict the breakdown position of both semiconducting and metallic NTs. Copyright 2012 Author(s). This article is distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.4720426]

Position control of DC motors with experience mapping based prediction controller

The paper presents a new controller inspired by the human experience based, voluntary body action control (dubbed motor control) learning mechanism. The controller is called Experience Mapping based Prediction Controller (EMPC). EMPC is designed with auto-learning features without the need for the plant model. The core of the controller is formed around the motor action prediction-control mechanism of humans based on past experiential learning with the ability to adapt to environmental changes intelligently. EMPC is utilized for high precision position control of DC motors. The simulation results are presented to show that accurate position control is achieved using EMPC for step and dynamic demands. The performance of EMPC is compared with conventional PD controller and MRAC based position controller under different system conditions. Position Control using EMPC is practically implemented and the results are presented.

Effect of substituent position on optical properties of boron-dipyrromethane isomers

Three isomeric meso-SiMe3C6H4 substituted BODIPYs have been synthesized and their optical properties studied. The constitutional isomers show similar absorption properties but vastly different emissive properties as a result of their different conformational flexibility. Fluorine-19 NMR study is used to unravel the conformational state of the BODIPY isomers at a molecular level. (C) 2013 Elsevier B. V. All rights reserved.

On the systematic position of some Asian enigmatic genera of Asclepiadoideae (Apocynaceae)

The phylogenetic structure of Asclepiadoideae (Apocynaceae) has been elucidated at the tribal and subtribal levels in the last two decades. However, to date, the systematic positions of seven Asian genera, Cosmostigma, Graphistemma, Holostemma, Pentasachme, Raphistemma, Seshagiria and Treutlera, have not been investigated. In this study, we examine the evolutionary relationships among these seven small enigmatic Asian genera and clarify their positions in Asclepiadoideae, using a combination of plastid sequences of rbcL, rps16, trnL and trnL- F regions. Cosmostigma and Treutlera are resolved as members of the non-Hoya clade of Marsdenieae with strong support (maximum parsimony bootstrap support value BSMP = 96, maximum likelihood bootstrap support value BSML = 98, Bayesian-inferred posterior probability PP = 1.0). Pentasachme is resolved as sister of Stapeliinae to Ceropegieae with moderate support (BSMP = 64, BSML = 66, PP = 0.94). Graphistemma, Holostemma, Raphistemma and Seshagiria are all nested in the Asclepiadeae-Cynanchinae clade (BSMP = 97, BSML = 100, PP = 1.0). The study confirms the generally accepted tribal and subtribal structure of the subfamily. One exception is Eustegia minuta, which is placed here as sister to all Asclepiadeae (BSMP = 58, BSML = 76, PP = 0.99) and not as sister to the Marsdenieae + Ceropegieae clade. The weak support and conflicting position indicate the need for a placement of Eustegia as an independent tribe. In Asclepiadeae, a sister group position of Cynanchinae to the Asclepiadinae + Tylophorinae clade is favoured (BSMP = 84, BSML = 88, PP = 1.0), whereas Schizostephanus is retrieved as unresolved. Oxystelma appears as an early-branching member of Asclepiadinae with weak support (BSMP = 52, BSML = 74, PP = 0.69). Calciphila and Solenostemma are also associated with Asclepiadinae with weak support (BSMP = 37, BSML = 45, PP = 0.79), but all alternative positions are essentially without support. The position of Indian Asclepiadoideae in the family phylogeny is discussed. (c) 2014 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 2014, 174, 601-619.

Structure-specific nuclease activity of RAGs is modulated by sequence, length and phase position of flanking double-stranded DNA

RAGs (recombination activating genes) are responsible for the generation of antigen receptor diversity through the process of combinatorial joining of different V (variable), D (diversity) and J (joining) gene segments. In addition to its physiological property, wherein RAG functions as a sequence-specific nuclease, it can also act as a structure-specific nuclease leading to genomic instability and cancer. In the present study, we investigate the factors that regulate RAG cleavage on non-B DNA structures. We find that RAG binding and cleavage on heteroduplex DNA is dependent on the length of the double-stranded flanking region. Besides, the immediate flanking double-stranded region regulates RAG activity in a sequence-dependent manner. Interestingly, the cleavage efficiency of RAGs at the heteroduplex region is influenced by the phasing of DNA. Thus, our results suggest that sequence, length and phase positions of the DNA can affect the efficiency of RAG cleavage when it acts as a structure-specific nuclease. These findings provide novel insights on the regulation of the pathological functions of RAGs.

Change in Mesoherbivore Browsing Is Mediated by Elephant and Hillslope Position

Elephant are considered major drivers of ecosystems, but their effects within small-scale landscape features and on other herbivores still remain unclear. Elephant impact on vegetation has been widely studied in areas where elephant have been present for many years. We therefore examined the combined effect of short-term elephant presence (< 4 years) and hillslope position on tree species assemblages, resource availability, browsing intensity and soil properties. Short-term elephant presence did not affect woody species assemblages, but did affect height distribution, with greater sapling densities in elephant access areas. Overall tree and stem densities were also not affected by elephant. By contrast, slope position affected woody species assemblages, but not height distributions and densities. Variation in species assemblages was statistically best explained by levels of total cations, Zinc, sand and clay. Although elephant and mesoherbivore browsing intensities were unaffected by slope position, we found lower mesoherbivore browsing intensity on crests with high elephant browsing intensity. Thus, elephant appear to indirectly facilitate the survival of saplings, via the displacement of mesoherbivores, providing a window of opportunity for saplings to grow into taller trees. In the short-term, effects of elephant can be minor and in the opposite direction of expectation. In addition, such behavioural displacement promotes recruitment of saplings into larger height classes. The interaction between slope position and elephant effect found here is in contrast with other studies, and illustrates the importance of examining ecosystem complexity as a function of variation in species presence and topography. The absence of a direct effect of elephant on vegetation, but the presence of an effect on mesoherbivore browsing, is relevant for conservation areas especially where both herbivore groups are actively managed.

An addition to the endemic Indian radiation of Eutropis: Phylogenetic position of Eutropis dissimilis Hallowell (Squamata: Scincidae)

Skinks of the genus Eutropis represent one of the most widespread and speciose lizard groups in tropical Asia. Numerous recent studies have utilized a variety of genes and methods to reconstruct the phylogeny of these lizards, however these studies have not resolved the placement of one of the widely distributed Eutropis Fitzinger, E. dissimilis. We have sequenced a specimen of E. dissimilis from the type locality and our result suggests that it is part of the Indian radiation of Eutropis and not related to African Trachylepis Fitzinger or Southeast Asian Dasia Gray as previously suggested. Furthermore, we report that the sequence of E. dissimilis used in an earlier study of the once cosmopolitan genus `Mabuya' may have been erroneously identified and appears to be a sequence of E. novemcarinata. We also demonstrate that the evolution of a clear lower eyelid, which was considered a synapomorphy for the sister genus Trachylepis, has arisen multiple times in Eutropis.

Site-Selective Addition of Maleimide to Indole at the C-2 Position: Ru(II)-Catalyzed C-H Activation

Synthesis of 3-(indol-2-yl)succinimide derivatives is presented using a directing group strategy. Selective functionalization of C-2 in the presence of highly reactive C-3 in indole derivatives has been achieved. A conjugate addition product instead of Heck-type product has been brought about by careful selection of the alkene partner (maleimides and maleate esters) such that a beta-hydride elimination is avoided.

A taxonomic mystery for more than 180 years: the identity and systematic position of Brachysaura minor (HARDWICKE & GRAY, 1827)

Brachysaura is a monotypic genus of agamid lizard found in the Indian subcontinent; the identity and systematic position of B. minor has been long debated, and it has at times been subsumed into Agama, Charasia and Laudakia, with some authors suggesting affinities to Calotes. We constructed nuclear and mitochondrial phylogenetic trees including Brachysaura and allied agamid genera to resolve its phylogenetic position. We also compared osteology and external morphology with the genera Agama, Calotes and Laudakia. Hemipenial morphology was compared with Calotes and some other agamids from South Asia. Both nuclear and mitochondrial phylogenies demonstrate that Brachysaura is nested within the widespread South and Southeast Asian genus Calotes, with which it also shares certain external morphological, osteological and hemipenial characters. Adaptations to ground dwelling in Brachysaura minor has resulted in unique modifications to its body plan, which is likely why generic allocation has been long confused. This study also highlights the need for an integrated systematic approach to resolve taxonomic ambiguity in Asian agamids.

Biochemical Characterization of Nonamer Binding Domain of RAG1 Reveals its Thymine Preference with Respect to Length and Position

RAG complex consisting of RAG1 and RAG2 is a site-specific endonuclease responsible for the generation of antigen receptor diversity. It cleaves recombination signal sequence (RSS), comprising of conserved heptamer and nonamer. Nonamer binding domain (NBD) of RAG1 plays a central role in the recognition of RSS. To investigate the DNA binding properties of the domain, NBD of murine RAG1 was cloned, expressed and purified. Electrophoretic mobility shift assays showed that NBD binds with high affinity to nonamer in the context of 12/23 RSS or heteroduplex DNA. NBD binding was specific to thymines when single stranded DNA containing poly A, C, G or T were used. Biolayer interferometry studies showed that poly T binding to NBD was robust and comparable to that of 12RSS. More than 23 nt was essential for NBD binding at homothymidine stretches. On a double-stranded DNA, NBD could bind to A:T stretches, but not G:C or random sequences. Although NBD is indispensable for sequence specific activity of RAGs, external supplementation of purified nonamer binding domain to NBD deleted cRAG1/cRAG2 did not restore its activity, suggesting that the overall domain architecture of RAG1 is important. Therefore, we define the sequence requirements of NBD binding to DNA.