Prescription contraception use: a cross-sectional population study of psychosocial determinants

Objective: Many forms of contraception are available on prescription only for example, the oral contraceptive pill (OCP) and long-acting reversible contraceptives (LARCs). In this analysis we aim to identify key determinants of prescription contraceptive use.

Design: Cross-sectional population survey. Data on sociodemographic indices, concerns about the OCP and perceived barriers to access were collected.

Setting: Data set constructed from a representative population-based telephone survey of community dwelling adults in the Republic of Ireland (RoI)

Participants: 1515 women aged between 18 and 45 years

Main outcome measure: Self-reported user of the OCP or LARCs (intrauterine contraception, contraceptive injections or subdermal contraceptive implants) in the previous 12 months.

Results: For at least some of the previous year, 35% had used the OCP and 14% had used LARCs, while 3% had used two or more of these methods. OCP users were significantly younger, more likely to be unmarried and had higher income than non-users. Overall, 68% agreed with the statement ‘that taking a break from long-term use of the contraceptive pill is a good idea’ and 37% agreed with the statement that ‘the OCP has dangerous side effects’ and this was the strongest predictor variable of non-use of the OCP. Intrauterine contraception users were significantly older, more likely to be married and had lower income than non-users. Injections or subdermal contraceptive implant users were significantly younger, less likely to be married, had lower income and were less likely to agree that taking a break from long-term use of the pill is a good idea than non-users.

Conclusions: Prescription contraceptive use is sociodemographically patterned, with LARCs in particular being associated with lower incomes in the RoI. Concerns about the safety of the OCP remain prevalent and are important and modifiable determinants of contraceptive-related behaviour.

Pilot study of the utility and acceptability of tampon sampling for the diagnosis of Neisseria gonorrhoeae and Chlamydia trachomatis infections by duplex realtime polymerase chain reaction in United Kingdom sex workers

We aimed to evaluate the acceptability of self-collected tampon samples for the screening of female sex workers for sexually transmitted infections. We recruited 65 sex workers, and 63 agreed to provide tampon samples. The tampon samples were processed by realtime polymerase chain reaction (PCR) targeting Neisseria gonorrhoeae and Chlamydia trachomatis. Urethral and endocervical swabs were also obtained from 61 of 63 participants and tested using culture (N. gonorrhoeae) and the BD ProbeTec strand displacement amplification (SDA) (C. trachomatis) assay. Tampon sampling was preferred by 95% of the women and all favoured being tested away from genitourinary medicine clinics; the most common reasons cited were avoidance of embarrassment (40%) and convenience (30%). Besides near-universal acceptability of tampon sampling, the tampon sampling-PCR approach described in this study appeared to have enhanced sensitivity compared with conventional testing, suggesting the possibility of a residual hidden burden of N. gonorrhoeae and/or C. trachomatis genital infections in UK female sex workers.

Chlamydia trachomatis Infecção na grávida e no recém-nascido

A infecção urogenital causada por Chlamydia trachomatis é a doença bacteriana sexualmente transmissível mais comum na Europa, tanto em homens como em mulheres. Constitui um grave problema de saúde pública devido à elevada percentagem de portadores assintomáticos, às complicações clínicas que daí podem resultar e à possibilidade de transmissão vertical. O presente trabalho teve como principais objectivos: i) avaliar a prevalência da infecção por C. trachomatis e por Neisseria gonorrhoeae num grupo de grávidas de 36 semanas atendidas na consulta externa de Obstetrícia do Hospital Amadora Sintra e nos recém-nascidos de mães infectadas, ii) identificar os serovares responsáveis pelas infecções por C. trachomatis, iii) verificar a distribuição da prevalência da infecção por C. trachomatis em função da idade e iv) avaliar a utilidade de uma técnica de PCR multiplex e de PCR multiplex em tempo real no diagnóstico desta infecção. Foram testadas 1201 amostras de urina do primeiro jacto de grávidas e 18 exsudados oculares provenientes de recém-nascidos cujas mães estavam infectadas com C. trachomatis. Cada amostra foi testada pelas técnicas de PCR multiplex e de PCR multiplex em tempo real, tendo como alvos de amplificação um fragmento do plasmídio críptico e outro do gene omp1. Todos os resultados positivos foram confirmados com uma técnica de nested PCR e posteriormente enviados para sequenciação para identificação dos serovares envolvidos. Em todas as amostras foi ainda pesquisada a presença de ADN de N. gonorrhoeae através de técnicas de PCR e de PCR em tempo real sendo que, na primeira, o alvo a amplificar foi um fragmento do gene ccpB do plasmídio pJDI e na segunda o pseudogene porA. Os resultados positivos foram confirmados por RFLP. A prevalência da infecção por C. trachomatis e por N. gonorrhoeae foi de 3,7% (45/1201) e de 0,08% (1/1201), respectivamente. Nos recém-nascidos, a prevalência foi de 0% para ambas as infecções, embora o número de recém-nascidos estudados (18/45) dificilmente seja representativo. O serovar mais prevalente foi o E (31,1%), seguido do G (15,6%), do D/Da (13,3%), do F, I/Ia e do J (11,1%). O serovar K foi identificado em 4,4% das amostras infectadas e o H em apenas 2,2%. A técnica de PCR multiplex em tempo real parece ser mais adequada para o diagnóstico da infecção por C. trachomatis do que a técnica de PCR multiplex, tendo a primeira detectado 100% dos casos de infecção por este microrganismo (45/45), enquanto que a segunda detectou apenas 71% (32/45) dos mesmos.

Evolutionary dynamics of Chlamydia trachomatis genome and identification of molecular patterns of hypothetical protein coding genes

The obligate intracellular bacterium Chlamydia trachomatis is a human pathogen of major public health significance. Strains can be classified into 15 main serovars (A to L3) that preferentially cause ocular infections (A-C), genital infections (D-K) or lymphogranuloma venereum (LGV) (L1-L3), but the molecular basis behind their distinct tropism, ecological success and pathogenicity is not welldefined. Most chlamydial research demands culture in eukaryotic cell lines, but it is not known if stains become laboratory adapted. By essentially using genomics and transcriptomics, we aimed to investigate the evolutionary patterns underlying the adaptation of C. trachomatis to the different human tissues, given emphasis to the identification of molecular patterns of genes encoding hypothetical proteins, and to understand the adaptive process behind the C. trachomatis in vivo to in vitro transition. Our results highlight a positive selection-driven evolution of C. trachomatis towards nichespecific adaptation, essentially targeting host-interacting proteins, namely effectors and inclusion membrane proteins, where some of them also displayed niche-specific expression patterns. We also identified potential "ocular-specific" pseudogenes, and pointed out the major gene targets of adaptive mutations associated with LGV infections. We further observed that the in vivo-derived genetic makeup of C. trachomatis is not significantly compromised by its long-term laboratory propagation. In opposition, its introduction in vitro has the potential to affect the phenotype, likely yielding virulence attenuation. In fact, we observed a "genital-specific" rampant inactivation of the virulence gene CT135, which may impact the interpretation of data derived from studies requiring culture. Globally, the findings presented in this Ph.D. thesis contribute for the understanding of C.trachomatis adaptive evolution and provides new insights into the biological role of C. trachomatishypothetical proteins. They also launch research questions for future functional studies aiming toclarify the determinants of tissue tropism, virulence or pathogenic dissimilarities among C. trachomatisstrains.

Determinación de la prevalencia de Chlamydia trachomatis en mujeres de la ciudad de Monterrey y valoración de cuatro métodos diagnósticos

Tesis (Maestría en Ciencias con Especialidad en Microbiología Médica) U.A.N.L.

Rastreo microbiológico de chlamydia trachomatis oculo - faringea - genital en pacientes con y sin periodontitis establecida.

Tesis (Maestría en Ciencias Odontológicas con Especialidad en Periodoncia) UANL, 2012.

Detection of Chlamydia psittaci DNA in avian clinical samples by polymerase chain reaction

A polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay was developed to detect Chlamydia psittaci DNA in faeces and tissue samples from avian species. Primers were designed to amplify a 264 bp product derived from part of the 5' non-translated region and part of the coding region of the ompA gene which encodes the major outer membrane protein. Amplified sequences were confirmed by Southern hybridization using an internal probe. The sensitivity of the combined assay was found to be between 60 to 600 fg of chlamydial DNA (approximately 6 to 60 genome copies). The specificity of the assay was confirmed since PCR product was not obtained from samples containing several serotypes of C. trachomatis, strains of C. pneumoniae, the type strain of C. pecorum, nor from samples containing microorganisms commonly found in the avian gut flora. In this study, 404 avian faeces and 141 avian tissue samples received by the Central Veterinary Laboratory over a 6 month period were analysed by PCR, antigen detection ELISA and where possible, cell culture isolation. PCR performed favourably compared with ELISA and cell culture, or with ELISA alone. The PCR assay was especially suited to the detection of C. psittaci DNA in avian faeces samples. The test was also useful when applied to tissue samples from small contact birds associated with a case of human psittacosis where ELISA results were negative and chlamydial isolation was a less favourable method due to the need for rapid diagnosis.

Prevalência de papilomavírus humano (HPV) e chlamydia trachomatis (CT) e sua associação com lesões cervicais em uma amostra de mulheres assintomáticas de Porto Alegre, RS

O câncer cervical acomete anualmente cerca de 470.000 mulheres em todo o mundo e mais de 16.000 mulheres no Brasil. O desenvolvimento do câncer cervical e sua associação ao Papilomavírus Humano (HPV) estão bem documentados, sendo este o fator principal para o desenvolvimento do câncer cervical. A infecção genital por Chlamydia trachomatis é estudada como um co-fator no desenvolvimento de neoplasias intraepiteliais cervicais (NICs) e outras alterações celulares significativas em mulheres com histórico de infecção por HPV. Este estudo tem como objetivo conhecer a prevalência de infecção por HPV e Chlamydia trachomatis em uma amostra de mulheres assintomáticas de uma área geográfica localizada na zona norte de Porto Alegre, bem como verificar as características associadas à presença desta co-infecção e sua relação com lesões cervicais. Trata-se de um estudo transversal cujo desfecho é a positividade ao HPV e à Chlamydia trachomatis em uma amostra de mulheres assintomáticas de Porto Alegre. Um total de 1217 amostras de material do colo do útero foi coletado para realização do exame citopatológico e para a identificação do DNA-HPV e DNA-CT através da técnica da Reação em Cadeia da Polimerase (PCR). Colposcopia e biópsia foram realizadas sempre que a citologia estivesse alterada e/ou a PCR para o HPV-DNA fosse positiva. A prevalência de HPV e Chlamydia trachomatis e sua distribuição por faixa etária são descritas, bem como a sua associação com as variáveis estudadas através das Razões de Chances (RC) estimadas por regressão logística múltipla. Observou-se uma prevalência de HPV-DNA de 28,4% (n=346/1217), de CT-DNA de 12,6% (n=152/1208) e de co-infecção por HPV e CT de 6,5% (n=78/1208). Mulheres não brancas (Razão de Chance (RC) =1,60; Intervalo de Confiança (IC) de 95%:1,10-2,38),assalariadas (RC=1,74; IC95%:1,17-2,60) e com parceiro apresentando história de condiloma genital (RC=2,35; IC95%:1,17-4,72) mostraram-se associadas com a positividade para HPV. A infecção por CT mostrou uma associação positiva com mulheres que iniciaram a vida sexual antes dos vinte anos (RC=1,82; IC95%:1,05-3,15) e assalariadas (RC=1,93; IC95%:1,15-3,25). Quanto à co-infecção por HPV e CT, mulheres com mais de três de parceiros sexuais na vida (RC=2,02; IC 95%:1,12-3,65) apresentaram uma associação positiva com o desfecho. Com relação à citologia, tanto a infecção por HPV quanto a co-infecção apresentaram associação significativa com anormalidades citológicas (p≤0.001). Os resultados mostraram uma elevada prevalência de HPV, de CT e de co-infecção em uma amostra de mulheres assintomáticas reforçando dados relatados na literatura. A associação destas infecções com variáveis sócioeconômicas, de comportamento sexual e com lesões do colo uterino, indicam a importância de medidas para a promoção e prevenção de saúde com este alvo específico dentro da rotina de serviços de atenção primária. Desta forma, acredita-se que estes dados possam ser muito úteis no planejamento de programas, incluindo o controle de Doenças Sexualmente Transmissíveis e a utilização de vacinas para o HPV.

Detecção de Chlamydia trachomatis em amostras cervicais por reação em cadeia da polimerase

Chlamydia trachomatis é o agente causal de uma das infecções sexualmente transmissíveis (IST) mais prevalentes da atualidade. Os maiores problemas no controle desta IST estão no caráter assintomático da infecção e no seu difícil diagnóstico laboratorial. Com o advento dos testes moleculares, grandes avanços ocorreram na área do diagnóstico laboratorial da infecção clamidial. O presente trabalho teve por objetivo desenvolver um método de detecção de C. trachomatis por PCR a partir de amostras cérvico-vaginais. A seqüência alvo escolhida para amplificação consiste de um segmento da ORF 4 do plasmídio críptico de ocorrência natural nesta bactéria. Noventa e duas amostras cérvico-vaginais foram submetidas ao protocolo de PCR in house proposto. Os produtos de PCR foram detectados por visualização direta após eletroforese em gel de agarose com brometo de etídio e por exposição radiográfica após hibridização com sonda homóloga. As amostras foram testadas paralelamente pelo método de captura híbrida para detecção de C. trachomatis. O kit COBAS Amplicor (Roche) foi utilizado para resolver resultados discrepantes. A seqüência do fragmento de 201pb foi confirmada por clivagem enzimática e por seqüenciamento. O teste de especificidade dos primers confirmou especificidade dos mesmos frente ao DNA de diferentes agentes patogênicos e da flora normal feminina. Do total de amostras analisadas, 50 foram positivas por captura híbrida, 51 foram positivas por PCR in house e 67 positivaram após hibridização.O teste de McNemar indicou haver concordância entre os métodos analisados dois a dois (P<0,001). Verificou-se concordância moderada nos comparativos entre captura híbrida e PCR (valor de Kappa: 0,45; DP 0,093), captura híbrida e hibridização (valor de kappa: 0,389; DP 0,091) e, PCR e hibridização (valor de Kappa: 0,634: DP 0,077). O método de PCR in house proposto para a detecção de C. trachomatis é uma técnica rápida e de baixo custo para o diagnóstico, controle e monitoramento dos casos da infecção. Estudos complementares, no entanto, são necessários para implementação deste teste em laboratórios da rede pública.

Prevalência da infecção por papilomavírus humano, herpes simplex tipo 1 e 2 e Chlamydia trachomatis em um segmento da população feminina da grande Natal/RN

Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) are among the largest public health problems, especially in developing countries. The acquisition of these infections during early sexual activity is common and many infections have a benign course. However, in some pathogens remain in the state of latency can be reactivated and cause productive infection that may progress to severe forms. In addition, some of them are transmitted vertically resulting in congenital infection, causing immediate damage or long-term child. The classic risk factors for sexually transmitted agents are: early onset of sexual and reproductive health, multiple sexual partners throughout life, use of oral contraceptives and co-infections with different pathogens. We present the results of a cross-sectional study aimed to estimate the prevalence of genital infection by human papillomavirus (HPV), Herpes simplex virus (HSV) and Chlamydia trachomatis (CT) in a segment of the female population of the metropolitan area Christmas, among those who enrolled voluntarily sought, Basic Health Units for the examination of cancer screening cervix in the period 2008 to 2010. All participants, a total of 261 women answered a standard questionnaire by which identified the socio-demographic characteristics, classical risk factors for STDs, reproductive and sexual activity and smoking. Of each patient were obtained two samples, one for the completion of the Pap test for detection of cellular changes and the other processed for DNA extraction and analyzed by PCR (polymerase chain reaction) to detect the three pathogens studied. The population of the study was composed of sexually active women aged between 13 and 79 years, mean 38.7 years, most of them being married, low education levels and low incomes. The majority (87%) had normal results on cytology and only 2.7% had low-grade cytological abnormalities. Prevalence rates were 37.9% for HPV, 4.6% for CT and 26% for HSV. HPV prevalence was higher in women under 25, unmarried and in those who had multiple sexual partners. Women with simultaneous infection by HSV-1 and 2 had higher prevalence of HPV infection. The prevalence of HSV infection showed no association whatsoever with the risk factors analyzed and HSV-1 was the predominant type among the cases of genital HSV infection. The overall prevalence of C. Trachomatis was relatively low, thus providing greater value in younger women aged less than or equal to 20 years

Prevalência da infecção pelo Papilomavírus humano, Chlamydia Trachomatis e Herpes Simples do tipo 2 em adolescentes atendidas em unidades de saúde pública de Natal

This study assessed the level of knowledge, attitude and practice of Pap smear and human papillomavirus (HPV), in addition to analyzing the prevalence of genital HPV infection, Herpes Simplex Type 2 (HSV-2) and Chlamydia trachomatis in teenagers. The study consisted of two approaches, one based only on interviews conducted with adolescents enrolled in public schools or in public health facilities in the city of Natal. The other approach involved only a group of 132 adolescents enrolled among those admitted to two health units in Natal-RN. This second group of participants two specimens were collected for laboratory analysis: one was directed to prepare the blade for the Pap test, and other processed for DNA extraction for molecular analysis, focusing on the detection of HPV, HSV-2 and C . trachomatis. The presence of DNA of the three pathogens was investigated by the technique of polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The presence of each of the three pathogens was analyzed in terms of socio-demographic characteristics, as well as sexual and reproductive activity to identify risk factors for infection and development of lesions of the uterine cervix. The results show that the adolescents in this study had levels of knowledge and attitude very low, both in relation to cytology to HPV as though they have made a reasonable percentage of adequate practice exam and prevention of HPV infection. The overall prevalence of HPV infection was 54.5% and 48.2% in adolescents with normal cytology and 86.4% in those with abnormal cytology. We observed a higher proportion of cases of infection in the age group of 18 to 21. The prevalence of HPV infection was slightly higher among pregnant teenagers. The overall prevalence of HSV-2 infection was 13.6% and 11.8% in women with normal cytology and 22.7% in those with abnormal cytology. A higher proportion of cases of infection was found in the age group from 14 to 17, with a slightly higher prevalence among pregnant women. The C. trachomatis was found with an overall prevalence of 19.7% and 21.8% in adolescents with normal cytology and 9.1% in those with abnormal cytology. The prevailing rate was highest in the age group 18 to 21 years and in nonpregnant

Prevalência da infecção por Chlamydia Trachomatis em mulheres atendidas no Programa de rastreamento do câncer de colo do útero

Genital infection with Chlamydia trachomatis is now recognized as one of the most prevalent sexually transmitted infections (STDs). Despite major advances in laboratory diagnosis techniques, primarily the character of asymptomatic chlamydial infection in both men and in women constitutes the basis for the formation of reservoirs that perpetuate transmission and acquisition of this and other STDs. The asymptomatic in women favors the rise of infection to the upper genital tract, causing injuries that can result in infertility. An examination of population screening for early detection and treatment of asymptomatic infections is the key step in combating this major public health problem. The present study aimed to evaluate the prevalence of infection by C. trachomatis in sexually active women attended the screening program for cervical cancer of the uterus in health facilities in municipalities in different regions of the State of Rio Grande do Norte, and identify factors that may contribute to the spread of this pathogen and its relationship with the lesions of the uterine cervix. It is a cross-sectional study aimed at detecting the presence of genital tract infection by C. trachomatis either in isolated form or in association with human papilloma virus (HPV) infection in asymptomatic women. Were included in this study, a total sample of 1,134 women aged 13-76, mean 34.4 years, from March 2008 to September 2012. Specimens containing exfoliated cells of the epithelium of the uterine cervix were analyzed by examining Pap cytology for the detection of possible injuries, and the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for detection of plasmid DNA from C. trachomatis and HPV. Infection with C. trachomatis was detected with overall prevalence rate of 8.1% in the isolated form and 2.8% in co-infection with HPV. The infection was detected in 7.4% of women with normal cytology 11.5% of those with atypical cells of undetermined significance (ASC-US) and 16.7% of those with low-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion (LSIL). We observed an association between C. trachomatis and incidence of low-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion (LSIL). The genital tract infection by C. trachomatis alone was associated with education level, ethnicity and parity, revealing that women with higher education, those of non-white ethnicity and those who had three or more pregnancies were more likely to acquire infection. Levels very close to statistical significance were observed for chronological age, age at first sexual intercourse and first pregnancy. There was no association with marital status, number of sexual partners. Co-infection with C. trachomatis and HPV was detected in 2.3% of women with normal cytology, who had 5.1% in ASC-US and 10.4% in those with LSIL. No association was found between infection C. trachomatis and increased risk of HPV infection, but women with simultaneous infection by both pathogens showed greater risk for LSIL. Co-infection was more prevalent among single women, who had in the first sexual intercourse under 18 years and those who had two or more sexual partners over a lifetime

Prevalence and Risk Factors of Chlamydia trachomatis Cervicitis in Pregnant Women at the Genital Tract Infection in Obstetrics Unit Care at Botucatu Medical School, São Paulo State University - UNESP, Brazil

Objective. To evaluate the prevalence of and risk factors for Chlamydia trachomatis cervicitis in pregnant women seen at the Genital Tract Infection in Obstetrics Unit Care in Botucatu Medical School, São Paulo State University - UNESP.Materials and Methods. Between June 2006 and February 2008, 101 pregnant women were included in this study. During the gynecologic examination, cervical secretions were collected using cytobrush Plus GT (CooperSurgical Inc) to assess C. trachomatis using polymerase chain reaction. Vaginal flora were examined by Gram stain, and socio-demographic data were extracted from medical records.Results. of the 101 patients, 26 (25.7%) were positive for C. trachomatis. The median age of the infected group was 24 years (range = 13-40 y), and 48.5% of them had abnormal vaginal flora. The presence of chlamydial infection was associated with smoking (odds ratio [OR] = 2.67, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.01-7.19), residing in a city with fewer than 100,000 inhabitants (OR = 2.86, 95% CI = 1.03-7.94), presence of condyloma acuminatum (p = .03), and presence of discreet inflammation on Pap smear (p = .02).Conclusions. The prevalence of C. trachomatis is high in pregnant women seen at the Genital Infection Unit Care, UNESP, and is related to many risk factors. Therefore, its screening is extremely important in reducing obstetrical and neonatal complications.