Comportamiento frente a corrosión bajo tensión en ambiente marino de armaduras de acero inoxidable dúplex

La utilización de barras corrugadas de acero inoxidable en estructuras de hormigón armado, se está mostrando como una alternativa con gran futuro en estructuras expuestas a ambientes muy agresivos o que requieran vidas en servicio muy elevadas. Estos aceros inoxidables cuentan con similares propiedades mecánicas que los aceros al carbono pero un comportamiento muy mejorado frente a la corrosión, especialmente frente a cloruros. Dentro de los aceros inoxidables, los del tipo dúplex tienen como ventaja una composición con una cantidad menor de níquel, reduciendo de esta manera el coste de estos y haciendo que su precio dependa menos de las fluctuaciones del precio del níquel. Este trabajo estudia la resistencia frente a la corrosión bajo tensión de estos aceros inoxidables del tipo dúplex (AISI 2001 y AISI 2205). The use of stainless steel reinforcing bars in concrete structures is proving to be an alternative with great future in structures exposed to aggressive environments or that are required to perform very long service lives. These steels have similar mechanical properties as carbon steels but very improved corrosion resistance, particularly against chlorides. Within stainless steels, duplex type ones have as an advantage their lower content of nickel in their composition, reducing this way their price and making it less related to nickel price fluctuations. This project will study stress corrosion cracking behavior for some of these duplex stainless steels (AISI 2001 and AISI 2205)

Colonización bacteriana y oxidación de aceros inoxidables austeníticos, ferríticos y dúplex sinterizados

Las características y capacidades de los aceros inoxidables sinterizados se han investigado en una doble vertiente. Por una parte con vista a sus capacidades de resistencia a la oxidación en caliente y por otra parte se ha investigado su capacidad para retener microorganismos que contribuyan a la descontaminación de un ambiente. Por ello, para cada una de estas funciones se han utilizado los aceros inoxidables sinterizados, que se han considerado más adecuados. Para estudiar sus capacidades de resistencia a la oxidación en caliente se ha utilizado un acero inoxidable austenítico AISI 304L, un acero inoxidable ferrítico AISI 430L y un acero inoxidable Fe-16Cr-3Al. Para estudiar sus capacidades para retener microorganismos se ha utilizado un acero inoxidable austenítico AISI 316L, un acero inoxidable ferrítico AISI 430L y un acero inoxidable dúplex 50%/50% de los anteriores. Para esta última finalidad los aceros se han compactado a tres diferentes presiones 300, 500 y 700 MPa, a las que corresponden diferentes porosidades. En relación con el comportamiento frente a la oxidación en caliente, se han cuantificado los incrementos positivos o negativos de volumen, masa y densidad en los diferentes tipos de sinterización y estados de tratamiento de oxidación. Como tónica general de comportamiento, puede decirse que los aceros sinterizados bajo vacío son más resistentes a la oxidación, que los sinterizados en atmósfera de N2-5H2 y que los aceros inoxidables austeníticos son algo más resistentes, que los Cr-Al y estos, a su vez, más que los aceros inoxidables ferríticos. Respecto a la retención de microorganismos, los tres aceros inoxidables sinterizados se han ensayado en diferentes medios de cultivo, utilizando cuatro especies de bacterias. Los mejores resultados se han obtenido con Staphylococcus aureus, muy favorable para su observación y recuento. Se han cuantificado, una vez sinterizados y colonizados por los microorganismos, para cada material y presión de compactación, las áreas de cada uno de los poros y el número de microorganismos situados en los poros y en la superficie sin poros. Se ha establecido en cada caso la densidad de microorganismos en las zonas de poros y en las zonas sin poros. Como tónica general puede decirse, que los aceros inoxidables austeníticos aparecen más favorables para estos estudios, que los aceros dúplex y estos más que los inoxidables ferríticos. Asimismo, se desprende que las áreas de los poros dependen de forma unívoca de la presión de compactación y que para áreas de poros decrecientes las densidades de microorganismos son crecientes. En consecuencia, podría deducirse, que a igualdad de área de poros en una superficie, aquella que tuviera los poros más pequeños, retendría mayor cantidad de bacterias. ABSTRACT The characteristics and capacities of sintered stainless steels have been researched from two perspectives: firstly, with a view to their resistance to hot oxidation, and secondly their capacity to retain microorganisms able to decontaminate the environment. For both these functions, sintered stainless steels were used, which are considered to be the most fit for purpose. To study their resistance to hot oxidation, we used austenitic stainless steel AISI 304L, ferritic stainless steel AISI 430L and stainless steel Fe-16Cr-3Al. To study their ability to retain microorganisms, we used austenitic stainless steel AISI 316L, ferritic stainless steel AISI 430L, and duplex stainless steel, being a 50/50 blend of the two former ones. For this last purpose, the steels were compacted at three different pressures (300, 500 and 700 MPa) corresponding to different porosities. With regard to the hot oxidation, we quantified the positive or negative increments in volume, mass and density in the different types of sintering and oxidation treatment states. As a general performance trend, we observed that vacuum sintered steels are more resistant to oxidation than those sintered in an atmosphere of N2-5H2, and that austenitic stainless steels are slightly more resistant than the Cr-Al steels which, in turn, are more resistant than the ferritic stainless steels. With regard to the retention of microorganisms, the three sintered stainless steels were tested in different culture media using four types of bacteria. The best results for observation and counting were obtained with Staphylococcus aureus bacteria. Once sintered and colonized by microorganisms, for each material and compacting pressure we quantified the areas of the pores and the number of microorganisms situated in the pores and on the pore-free surface. In each case, the density of microorganisms in the pores and in the pore-free areas was established. As a general rule, we can say that the austenitic stainless steels appear to be more favourable for this type of study than the duplex steels which, in turn, are more favourable than the ferritic stainless steels. It also emerged that the areas with the pores depend unequivocally on the compacting pressure, and that the smaller the area of the pore the higher the density of the microorganisms. Consequently, it can be deduced that comparing an equal area of pores on a surface, the one with the smaller pores would retain a larger number of bacteria.

Efeito da temperatura de revenimento sobre o grau de sensitização e resistência à corrosão por pite de aços inoxidáveis supermartensíticos contendo 13% Cr, 5% Ni, com e sem adições de Nb e Mo.

O desenvolvimento dos aços inoxidáveis Super-Martensíticos (SM) nasce da necessidade de implementar novas tecnologias, mais econômicas e amigáveis ao meio ambiente. Os aços inoxidáveis SM são uma derivação dos aços inoxidáveis martensíticos convencionais, diferenciando-se basicamente no menor teor de carbono, na adição de Ni e Mo. Foram desenvolvidos como uma alternativa para aços inoxidáveis duplex no uso de dutos para a extração de petróleo offshore em meados dos anos 90. Para que esses aços apresentem as propriedades mecânicas de resistência à tração e tenacidade é necessário que sejam realizados tratamentos de austenitização, seguido de têmpera, e de revenimento, onde, particularmente para este último, há várias opções de tempos e temperaturas. Como os tratamentos térmicos geram as propriedades mecânicas através de transformações de fase (precipitação) podem ocorrer alterações da resistência à corrosão. São conhecidos os efeitos benéficos da adição de Nb em aços inoxidáveis tradicionais. Por isso, o objetivo desta pesquisa foi estudar aços inoxidáveis SM contendo Nb. Foi pesquisada a influência da temperatura de revenimento sobre a resistência à corrosão de três aços inoxidáveis SM, os quais contêm 13% Cr, 5% Ni, 1% a 2% Mo, com e sem adições de Nb. No presente trabalho, foram denominados de SM2MoNb, SM2Mo e SM1MoNb, que representam aços com 2% Mo, 1% Mo e 0,11% Nb. Dado que os principais tipos de corrosão para aços inoxidáveis são a corrosão por pite (por cloreto) e a corrosão intergranular (sensitização), optou-se por determinar os Potenciais de Pite (Ep) e os Graus de Sensitização (GS) em função da temperatura de revenimento. Os aços passaram por recozimento a 1050°C por 48 horas, para eliminação de fase ferrita delta. Em seguida foram tratados a 1050 °C por 30 minutos, com resfriamento ao ar, para uniformização do tamanho de grão. A estrutura martensítica obtida recebeu tratamentos de revenimento em temperaturas de: 550 °C, 575 °C, 600 °C, 625 °C, 650 °C e 700 °C, por 2 horas. O GS foi medido através da técnica de reativação eletroquímica potenciodinâmica na versão ciclo duplo (DL-EPR), utilizando-se eletrólito de 1M H2SO4 + 0,01M KSCN. Para determinar o Ep foram realizados ensaios de polarização potenciodinâmica em 0,6M NaCl. Os resultados obtidos foram discutidos através das variações microestruturais encontradas. Foram empregadas técnicas de microscopia ótica (MO), microscopia eletrônica de varredura (MEV), simulação termodinâmica de fases através do programa Thermo-Calc e determinação de austenita revertida mediante difração de raios X (DRX) e ferritoscópio. A quantificação da austenita por DRX identificou que a partir de 600 °C há formação desta fase, apresentando máximo em 650 °C, e novamente diminuindo para zero a 700 °C. Por sua vez, o método do ferritoscópio detectou austenita nas condições em que a analise de DRX indicou valor nulo, sendo as mais críticas a do material temperado (sem revenimento) e do aço revenido a 700 °C. Propõe-se que tais diferenças entre os dois métodos se deve à morfologia fina da austenia retida, a qual deve estar localizada entre as agulhas de martensita. Os resultados foram discutidos em termos da precipitação de Cr23C6, Mo6C, NbC, fase Chi, austenita e ferrita, bem como das consequências do empobrecimento em Cr e Mo, gerados por tais microconstituintes. São propostos três mecanismos para explicar a sensitização: o primeiro é devido a precipitação de Cr23C6, o segundo a precipitação de fase Chi (rica em Cr e Mo) e o terceiro é devido a formação de ferrita durante o revenimento. O melhor desempenho quanto ao GS foi obtido para os revenimentos a 575 °C e 600°C, por 2 horas. Os resultados de Ep indicaram que o aço SM2MoNb, revenido a 575°C, tem o melhor desempenho quanto à resistência à corrosão por cloreto. Isso associado ao baixo GS coloca este aço, com este tratamento térmico, numa posição de destaque para aplicações onde a resistência à corrosão é um critério de seleção de material, uma vez que, segundo a literatura a temperatura de 575 °C está no intervalo de temperaturas de revenimento onde são obtidas as melhores propriedades mecânicas.

Welding and brazing : a bibliography of unclassified report literature.

Selected unclassified reports, supplementing those abstracted in TID-3059, which were available in TISE files on July 1, 1956, on welding and brazing of materials of interest to nuclear technology, such as Al, Be, Hf, Mo, Th, Ti, Zr, stainless steels, high-temperature alloys, pressure vessels, and heat exchangers, are annotated. Author, subject, and report number indexes are included. 127 references.

Understanding magnesium corrosion - A framework for improved alloy performance

The purpose of this paper is to provide a succinct but nevertheless complete mechanistic overview of the various types of magnesium corrosion. The understanding of the corrosion processes of magnesium alloys builds upon our understanding of the corrosion of pure magnesium. This provides an understanding of the types of corrosion exhibited by,magnesium alloys, and also of the environmental factors Of most importance. This deep understanding is required as a foundation if we are to produce magnesium alloys much more resistant to corrosion than the present alloys. Much has already been achieved, but there is vast scope for improvement. This present analysis can provide a foundation and a theoretical framework for further, much needed research. There is still vast scope both for better fundamental understanding of corrosion processes, engineering usage of magnesium, and also on the corrosion protection of magnesium alloys in service.

Service performance of engineering materials

Corrosion research by Atrens and co-workers has made significant contributions to the understanding of the service performance of engineering materials. This includes: (1) elucidated corrosion mechanisms of Mg alloys, stainless steels and Cu alloys, (2) developed an improved understanding of passivity in stainless steels and binary alloys such as Fe-Cr, Ni-Cr, Co-Cr, Fe-Ti, and Fe-Si, (3) developed an improved understanding of the melt spinning of Cu alloys, and (4) elucidated mechanisms of environment assisted fracture (EAF) of steels and Zr alloys. This paper summarises contributions in the following: (1) intergranular stress corrosion cracking of pipeline steels, (2) atmospheric corrosion and patination of Cu, (3) corrosion of Mg alloys, and (4) transgranular stress corrosion cracking of rock bolts.

A critical review of the stress corrosion cracking (SCC) of magnesium alloys

This review aims to provide a foundation for the safe and effective use of magnesium (Mg) alloys, including practical guidelines for the service use of Mg alloys in the atmosphere and/or in contact with aqueous solutions. This is to provide support for the rapidly increasing use of Mg in industrial applications, particularly in the automobile industry. These guidelines should be firmly based on a critical analysis of our knowledge of SCC based on (1) service experience, (2) laboratory testing and (3) understanding of the mechanism of SCC, as well as based on an understanding of the Mg corrosion mechanism.

CO2 absorption into aqueous amine blended solutions containing monoethanolamine (MEA), N,N-dimethylethanolamine (DMEA), N,N-diethylethanolamine (DEEA) and 2-amino-2-methyl-1-propanol (AMP) for post-combustion capture processes

Presently monoethanolamine (MEA) remains the industrial standard solvent for CO2 capture processes. Operating issues relating to corrosion and degradation of MEA at high temperatures and concentrations, and in the presence of oxygen, in a traditional PCC process, have introduced the requisite for higher quality and costly stainless steels in the construction of capture equipment and the use of oxygen scavengers and corrosion inhibitors. While capture processes employing MEA have improved significantly in recent times there is a continued attraction towards alternative solvents systems which offer even more improvements. This movement includes aqueous amine blends which are gaining momentum as new generation solvents for CO2 capture processes. Given the exhaustive array of amines available to date endless opportunities exist to tune and tailor a solvent to deliver specific performance and physical properties in line with a desired capture process. The current work is focussed on the rationalisation of CO2 absorption behaviour in a series of aqueous amine blends incorporating monoethanolamine, N,N-dimethylethanolamine (DMEA), N,N-diethylethanolamine (DEEA) and 2-amino-2-methyl-1-propanol (AMP) as solvent components. Mass transfer/kinetic measurements have been performed using a wetted wall column (WWC) contactor at 40°C for a series of blends in which the blend properties including amine concentration, blend ratio, and CO2 loadings from 0.0-0.4 (moles CO2/total moles amine) were systematically varied and assessed. Equilibrium CO2 solubility in each of the blends has been estimated using a software tool developed in Matlab for the prediction of vapour liquid equilibrium using a combination of the known chemical equilibrium reactions and constants for the individual amine components which have been combined into a blend.From the CO2 mass transfer data the largest absorption rates were observed in blends containing 3M MEA/3M Am2 while the selection of the Am2 component had only a marginal impact on mass transfer rates. Overall, CO2 mass transfer in the fastest blends containing 3M MEA/3M Am2 was found to be only slightly lower than a 5M MEA solution at similar temperatures and CO2 loadings. In terms of equilibrium behaviour a slight decrease in the absorption capacity (moles CO2/mole amine) with increasing Am2 concentration in the blends with MEA was observed while cyclic capacity followed the opposite trend. Significant increases in cyclic capacity (26-111%) were observed in all blends when compared to MEA solutions at similar temperatures and total amine concentrations. In view of the reasonable compromise between CO2 absorption rate and capacity a blend containing 3M MEA and 3M AMP as blend components would represent a reasonable alternative in replacement of 5M MEA as a standalone solvent.

A Comparati ve Study of Mechanical and Tribological Properties of AISI-304 and AISI-316 Submitted to Glow Discharge Nitriding

Mechanical and tribological properties of AISI 304 and AISI 316 stainless steels submitted to glow discharge ion nitriding are reported. The atmosphere was 20:80 - N2:H2 with substrate temperatures ranging from 300 to 500 °C. Treatment at 300 °C produced expanded austenite (γN) in both steels. Increasing the temperature, the phases γ′-Fe4N and ε- Fe2+xN were present and the latter is the major phase for AISI 304. At 500 °C, the CrN phase was also identified in both steels. Hardnesses of about 13-14 GPa at near surface regions were obtained in both steels. Moreover, AISI 316 nitrided at 500 °C has the deepest hard layer. Tribological tests showed that wear can be reduced by up to a factor of six after the nitriding processes, even for a working temperature of 300 °C. The profiles during and after nanoscratch tests did not reveal significant differences after nitriding processes in both steels.

A Comparative Study of Mechanical and Tribological Properties of AISI-304 and AISI-316 Submitted to Glow Discharge Nitriding

Mechanical and tribological properties of AISI 304 and AISI 316 stainless steels submitted to glow discharge ion nitriding are reported. The atmosphere was 20:80 - N2:H2 with substrate temperatures ranging from 300 to 500 °C. Treatment at 300 °C produced expanded austenite (γN) in both steels. Increasing the temperature, the phases γ′-Fe4N and ε- Fe2+xN were present and the latter is the major phase for AISI 304. At 500 °C, the CrN phase was also identified in both steels. Hardnesses of about 13-14 GPa at near surface regions were obtained in both steels. Moreover, AISI 316 nitrided at 500 °C has the deepest hard layer. Tribological tests showed that wear can be reduced by up to a factor of six after the nitriding processes, even for a working temperature of 300 °C. The profiles during and after nanoscratch tests did not reveal significant differences after nitriding processes in both steels.

Microstructure characterization of 316L deformed at high strain rates using EBSD

Specimens from split Hopkinson pressure bar experiments, at strain rates between ~ 1000–9000 s− 1 at room temperature and 500 °C, have been studied using electron backscatter diffraction. No significant differences in the microstructures were observed at different strain rates, but were observed for different strains and temperatures. Size distribution for subgrains with boundary misorientations > 2° can be described as a bimodal lognormal area distribution. The distributions were found to change due to deformation. Part of the distribution describing the large subgrains decreased while the distribution for the small subgrains increased. This is in accordance with deformation being heterogeneous and successively spreading into the undeformed part of individual grains. The variation of the average size for the small subgrain distribution varies with strain but not with strain rate in the tested interval. The mean free distance for dislocation slip, interpreted here as the average size of the distribution of small subgrains, displays a variation with plastic strain which is in accordance with the different stages in the stress-strain curves. The rate of deformation hardening in the linear hardening range is accurately calculated using the variation of the small subgrain size with strain.