Emissions trading and the GATS financial services provisions : a case study of the Australian carbon pricing mechanism

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to determine whether greenhouse gas (GHG) tradeable instruments will be classified as financial products within the scope of the World Trade Organization (WTO) law and to explore the implications of this finding. Design/methodology/approach This purpose is achieved through examination of the units of the Australian Carbon Pricing Mechanism (CPM), namely eligible emissions units. These units are analysed through the lens of the definition of financial products provided in the General Agreement for Trade in Services (the GATS). Findings This paper finds that eligible emissions units will be classified as financial instruments, and therefore the provisions that govern their trade will be regulated by the GATS. Considering this, this paper explores the limitations that are introduced by the Australian legislation on the trade of eligible emissions units. Research limitations/implications This paper is limited in its analysis to the Australian CPM. In order to draw conclusions on the issues raised by this analysis it is necessary to consider the WTO requirements against an operating emissions trading scheme. The Australian CPM presents a contemporary model of an appropriate scheme. Originality/value The findings in this paper are crucial in a GHG constrained society. This is because emissions trading schemes are becoming popular measures for pricing GHG emissions, and for this reason the units that are traded and surrendered for emissions liabilities must be classified appropriately on a global scale. Failing to do this could result in differential treatment that may be contrary to the intentions of important global agreements, such as the WTO covered agreements.

A recurrent network in the lateral amygdala : a mechanism for coincidence detection

Synaptic changes at sensory inputs to the dorsal nucleus of the lateral amygdala (LAd) play a key role in the acquisition and storage of associative fear memory. However, neither the temporal nor spatial architecture of the LAd network response to sensory signals is understood. We developed a method for the elucidation of network behavior. Using this approach, temporally patterned polysynaptic recurrent network responses were found in LAd (intra-LA), both in vitro and in vivo, in response to activation of thalamic sensory afferents. Potentiation of thalamic afferents resulted in a depression of intra-LA synaptic activity, indicating a homeostatic response to changes in synaptic strength within the LAd network. Additionally, the latencies of thalamic afferent triggered recurrent network activity within the LAd overlap with known later occurring cortical afferent latencies. Thus, this recurrent network may facilitate temporal coincidence of sensory afferents within LAd during associative learning.

Mechanism based emulation of dynamic simulation models : concept and application in hydrology

Many model-based investigation techniques, such as sensitivity analysis, optimization, and statistical inference, require a large number of model evaluations to be performed at different input and/or parameter values. This limits the application of these techniques to models that can be implemented in computationally efficient computer codes. Emulators, by providing efficient interpolation between outputs of deterministic simulation models, can considerably extend the field of applicability of such computationally demanding techniques. So far, the dominant techniques for developing emulators have been priors in the form of Gaussian stochastic processes (GASP) that were conditioned with a design data set of inputs and corresponding model outputs. In the context of dynamic models, this approach has two essential disadvantages: (i) these emulators do not consider our knowledge of the structure of the model, and (ii) they run into numerical difficulties if there are a large number of closely spaced input points as is often the case in the time dimension of dynamic models. To address both of these problems, a new concept of developing emulators for dynamic models is proposed. This concept is based on a prior that combines a simplified linear state space model of the temporal evolution of the dynamic model with Gaussian stochastic processes for the innovation terms as functions of model parameters and/or inputs. These innovation terms are intended to correct the error of the linear model at each output step. Conditioning this prior to the design data set is done by Kalman smoothing. This leads to an efficient emulator that, due to the consideration of our knowledge about dominant mechanisms built into the simulation model, can be expected to outperform purely statistical emulators at least in cases in which the design data set is small. The feasibility and potential difficulties of the proposed approach are demonstrated by the application to a simple hydrological model.

Reversible addition fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) polymerization : mechanism, process and applications

The present article gives an overview of the reversible addition fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) process. RAFT is one of the most versatile living radical polymerization systems and yields polymers of predictable chain length and narrow molecular weight distribution. RAFT relies on the rapid exchange of thiocarbonyl thio groups between growing polymeric chains. The key strengths of the RAFT process for polymer design are its high tolerance of monomer functionality and reaction conditions, the wide range of well-controlled polymeric architectures achievable, and its (in-principle) non-rate-retarding nature. This article introduces the mechanism of polymerization, the range of polymer molecular weights achievable, the range of monomers in which polymerization is controlled by RAFT, the various polymeric architectures that can be obtained, the type of end-group functionalities available to RAFT-made polymers, and the process of RAFT polymerization.

Mechanism of the α-to-β phase transformation in the LaNi5–H2 system

High-energy synchrotron in situ X-ray powder diffraction has been used to elucidate the mechanism of the hydriding phase transformation in a LaNi5 model hydrogen storage intermetallic in real time. The transformation proceeds at 10 °C via the transient growth of an interfacial phase, the γ phase, with lattice parameters intermediate between those of the α (dilute solid solution) and β (concentrated hydride) phases. The γ phase forms to partially accommodate the 24% change in unit cell volume between the α and β phases during hydriding and dehydriding. The α, γ and β phases coexist at the nanoscopic level.

Mechanism‐based selection of a potent kallikrein‐related peptidase 7 inhibitor from a versatile library based on the sunflower trypsin inhibitor SFTI‐1

Potent and specific enzyme inhibition is a key goal in the development of therapeutic inhibitors targeting proteolytic activity. The backbone-cyclized peptide, Sunflower Trypsin Inhibitor (SFTI-1) affords a scaffold that can be engineered to achieve both these aims. SFTI-1's mechanism of inhibition is unusual in that it shows fast-on/slow-off kinetics driven by cleavage and religation of a scissile bond. This phenomenon was used to select a nanomolar inhibitor of kallikrein-related peptidase 7 (KLK7) from a versatile library of SFTI variants with diversity tailored to exploit distinctive surfaces present in the active site of serine proteases. Inhibitor selection was achieved through the use of size exclusion chromatography to separate protease/inhibitor complexes from unbound inhibitors followed by inhibitor identification according to molecular mass ascertained by mass spectrometry. This approach identified a single dominant inhibitor species with molecular weight of 1562.4 Da, which is consistent with the SFTI variant SFTI-WCTF. Once synthesized individually this inhibitor showed an IC50 of 173.9 ± 7.6 nM against chromogenic substrates and could block protein proteolysis. Molecular modeling analysis suggested that selection of SFTI-WCTF was driven by specific aromatic interactions and stabilized by an enhanced internal hydrogen bonding network. This approach provides a robust and rapid route to inhibitor selection and design.

Revolute joint approach to model joint mechanism in water-filled road safety barriers

Portable water-filled road barriers (PWFB) are roadside structures placed on temporary construction zones to separate work site from traffic. Recent changes in governing standards require PWFB to adhere to strict compliance in terms of lateral displacement and vehicle redirectionality. Actual PWFB test can be very costly, thus researchers resort to Finite Element Analysis (FEA) in the initial designs phase. There has been many research conducted on concrete barriers and flexible steel barriers using FEA, however not many was done pertaining to PWFB. This research probes a new technique to model joints in PWFB. Two methods to model the joining mechanism are presented and discussed in relation to its practicality and accuracy. Moreover, the study of the physical gap and mass of the barrier was investigated. Outcome from this research will benefit PWFB research and allow road barrier designers better knowledge in developing the next generation of road safety structures.

Effect of joint mechanism on vehicle redirectional capability of water-filled road safety barrier systems

Portable water-filled barriers (PWFBs) are roadside appurtenances that prevent vehicles from penetrating into temporary construction zones on roadways. PWFBs are required to satisfy the strict regulations for vehicle re-direction in tests. However, many of the current PWFBs fail to re-direct the vehicle at high speeds due to the inability of the joints to provide appropriate stiffness. The joint mechanism hence plays a crucial role in the performance of a PWFB system at high speed impacts. This paper investigates the desired features of the joint mechanism in a PWFB system that can re-direct vehicles at high speeds, while limiting the lateral displacement to acceptable limits. A rectangular “wall” representative of a 30 m long barrier system was modeled and a novel method of joining adjacent road barriers was introduced through appropriate pin-joint connections. The impact response of the barrier “wall” and the vehicle was obtained and the results show that a rotational stiffness of 3000 kNm/rad at the joints seems to provide the desired features of the PWFB system to re-direct impacting vehicles and restrict the lateral deflection. These research findings will be useful to safety engineers and road barrier designers in developing a new generation of PWFBs for increased road safety.

Epidermal growth factor promotes MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cell migration through a phosphatidylinositol 3'-kinase and phospholipase C-dependent mechanism

Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) levels predict a poor outcome in human breast cancer and are most commonly associated with proliferative effects of epidermal growth factor (EGF), with little emphasis placed on motogenic responses to EGF. We found that MDA-MB-231 human breast cancer cells elicited a potent chemotactic response despite their complete lack of a proliferative response to EGF. Antagonists of EGFR ligation, the EGFR kinase, phosphatidylinositol 3'-kinase, and phospholipase C, but not the mitogen- activated protein kinases (extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase 1 and 2), blocked MDA-MB-231 chemotaxis. These findings suggest that EGF may influence human breast cancer progression via migratory pathways, the signaling for which appears to be dissociated, at least in part, from the proliferative pathways.

Mesenchymal-epithelial transition (MET) as a mechanism for metastatic colonisation in breast cancer

As yet, there is no cure for metastatic breast cancer. Historically, considerable research effort has been concentrated on understanding the processes of metastasis, how a primary tumour locally invades and systemically disseminates using the phenotypic switching mechanism of epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT); however, much less is understood about how metastases are then formed. Breast cancer metastases often look (and may even function) as 'normal' breast tissue, a bizarre observation against the backdrop of the organ structure of the lung, liver, bone or brain. Mesenchymal to epithelial transition (MET), the opposite of EMT, has been proposed as a mechanism for establishment of the metastatic neoplasm, leading to questions such as: Can MET be clearly demonstrated in vivo? What factors cause this phenotypic switch within the cancer cell? Are these signals/factors derived from the metastatic site (soil) or expressed by the cancer cells themselves (seed)? How do the cancer cells then grow into a detectable secondary tumour and further disseminate? And finallyCan we design and develop therapies that may combat this dissemination switch? This review aims to address these important questions by evaluating long-standing paradigms and novel emerging concepts in the field of epithelial mesencyhmal plasticity.

Selective involvement of TIMP-2 in the second activational cleavage of pro-MMP-2 : refinement of the pro-MMP-2 activation mechanism

A tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases-2 (TIMP-2)-independent mechanism for generating the first activational cleavage of pro-matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2) was identified in membrane type-1 MMP (MT1-MMP)-transfected MCF-7 cells and confirmed in TIMP-2-deficient fibroblasts. In contrast, the second MMP-2-activational step was found to be TIMP-2 dependent in both systems. MMP-2 hemopexin C-terminal domain was found to be critical for the first step processing, confirming a need for membrane tethering. We propose that the intermediate species of MMP-2 forms the well-established trimolecular complex (MT1-MMP/TIMP-2/MMP-2) for further TIMP-2-dependent autocatalytic cleavage to the fully active species. This alternate mechanism may supplement the traditional TIMP-2-mediated first step mechanism.

Tunable “Nano-Shearing” : A physical mechanism to displace nonspecific cell adhesion during rare cell detection

We report a tunable alternating current electrohydrodynamic (ac-EHD) force which drives lateran fluid motion within a few nanometers of an electrode surface. Because the magnitude of this fluid shear force can be tuned externally (e.g., via the application of an ac electric field), it provides a new capability to physically displace weakly (nonspecifically) bound cellular analytes. To demonstrate the utility of the tunable nanoshearing phenomenon, we present data on purpose-built microfluidic devices that employ ac-EHD force to remove nonspecific adsorption of molecular and cellular species. Here, we show that an ac-EHD device containing asymmetric planar and microtip electrode pairs resulted in a 4-fold reduction in nonspecific adsorption of blood cells and also captured breast cancer cells in blood, with high efficiency (approximately 87%) and specificity. We therefore feel that this new capability of externally tuning and manipulating fluid flow could have wide applications as an innovative approach to enhance the specific capture of rare cells such as cancer cells in blood.

The effect of temperature on the mechanism of photoluminescence from plasma-nucleated, nitrogenated carbon nanotips

Nitrogenated carbon nanotips (NCNTPs) have been synthesized using customized plasma-enhanced hot filament chemical vapor deposition. The morphological, structural, and photoluminescent properties of the NCNTPs are investigated using scanning and transmission electron microscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, and photoluminescence spectroscopy. The photoluminescence measurements show that the NCNTPs predominantly emit a green band at room temperature while strong blue emission is generated at 77 K. It is shown that these very different emission behaviors are related to the change of the optical band-gap and the concentration of the paramagnetic defects of the carbon nanotips. The studies shed light on the controversies on the photoluminescence mechanisms of carbon-based amorphous films measured at different temperatures. The relevance of the results to the use of nitrogenated carbon nanotips in light-emitting optoelectronic devices is discussed.

Single-step, catalyst-free plasma-assisted synthesis and growth mechanism of single-crystalline aluminum nitride nanorods

Synthesis of one-dimensional AlN nanostructures commonly requires high process temperatures (>900 °C), metal catalyst, and hazardous gas/powder precursors. We report on a simple, single-step, catalyst-free, plasma-assisted growth of dense patterns of size-uniform single-crystalline AlN nanorods at a low substrate temperature (∼650 °C) without any catalyst or hazardous precursors. This unusual growth mechanism is based on highly effective plasma dissociation of N2 molecules, localized species precipitation on AlN islands, and reduced diffusion on the nitrogen-rich surface. This approach can also be used to produce other high-aspect-ratio oxide and nitride nanostructures for applications in energy conversion, sensing, and optoelectronics. © 2010 American Institute of Physics.

Electron transport across magnetic field in low-temperature plasmas : an alternative approach for obtaining evidence of Bohm mechanism

A comparative study involving both experimental and numerical investigations was made to resolve a long-standing problem of understanding electron conductivity mechanism across magnetic field in low-temperature plasmas. We have calculated the plasma parameters from experimentally obtained electric field distribution, and then made a 'back' comparison with the distributions of electron energy and plasma density obtained in the experiment. This approach significantly reduces an influence of the assumption about particular phenomenology of the electron conductivity in plasma. The results of the experiment and calculations made by this technique have showed that the classical conductivity is not capable of providing realistic total current and electron energy, whereas the phenomenological anomalous Bohm mobility has demonstrated a very good agreement with the experiment. These results provide an evidence in favor of the Bohm conductivity, thus making it possible to clarify this pressing long-living question about the main driving mechanism responsible for the electron transport in low-temperature plasmas.