Simulations numériques de la dynamique des protéines : translation de ligands, flexibilité et dynamique des boucles

La flexibilité est une caractéristique intrinsèque des protéines qui doivent, dès le mo- ment de leur synthèse, passer d’un état de chaîne linéaire à un état de structure tridimen- sionnelle repliée et enzymatiquement active. Certaines protéines restent flexibles une fois repliées et subissent des changements de conformation de grande amplitude lors de leur cycle enzymatique. D’autres contiennent des segments si flexibles que leur structure ne peut être résolue par des méthodes expérimentales. Dans cette thèse, nous présentons notre application de méthodes in silico d’analyse de la flexibilité des protéines : • À l’aide des méthodes de dynamique moléculaire dirigée et d’échantillonnage pa- rapluie, nous avons caractérisé les trajectoires de liaison de l’inhibiteur Z-pro- prolinal à la protéine Prolyl oligopeptidase et identifié la trajectoire la plus pro- bable. Nos simulations ont aussi identifié un mode probable de recrutement des ligands utilisant une boucle flexible de 19 acides aminés à l’interface des deux domaines de la protéine. • En utilisant les méthodes de dynamique moléculaire traditionnelle et dirigée, nous avons examiné la stabilité de la protéine SAV1866 dans sa forme fermée insérée dans une membrane lipidique et étudié un des modes d’ouverture possibles par la séparation de ses domaines liant le nucléotide. • Nous avons adapté auproblème de la prédiction de la structure des longues boucles flexibles la méthode d’activation et de relaxation ART-nouveau précédemment uti- lisée dans l’étude du repliement et de l’agrégation de protéines. Appliqué au replie- ment de boucles de 8 à 20 acides aminés, la méthode démontre une dépendance quadratique du temps d’exécution sur la longueur des boucles, rendant possible l’étude de boucles encore plus longues.

Mechanisms of translation regulation in long-term synaptic plasticity

Les souvenirs sont encodés dans le cerveau grâce aux configurations uniques de vastes réseaux neuronaux. Chaque connexion dans ces circuits est apte à être modifiée. Ces changements durables s’opèrent au niveau des synapses grâce à une synthèse de protéines de novo et génèrent ce qu’on nomme des traces mnésiques. Plusieurs preuves indiquent que, dans certaines formes de plasticité synaptique à long terme, cette synthèse a lieu dans les dendrites près des synapses activées plutôt que dans le corps cellulaire. Cependant, les mécanismes qui régulent cette traduction de protéines demeurent encore nébuleux. La phase d’initiation de la traduction est une étape limitante et hautement régulée qui, selon plusieurs chercheurs, constitue la cible principale des mécanismes de régulation de la traduction dans la plasticité synaptique à long terme. Le présent projet de recherche infirme cette hypothèse dans une certaine forme de plasticité synaptique, la dépression à long terme dépendante des récepteurs métabotropiques du glutamate (mGluR-LTD). À l’aide d’enregistrements électrophysiologiques de neurones hippocampiques en culture couplés à des inhibiteurs pharmacologiques, nous montrons que la régulation de la traduction implique les étapes de l’élongation et de la terminaison et non celle de l’initiation. De plus, nous démontrons grâce à des stratégies de knockdown d’expression d’ARN que la protéine de liaison d’ARNm Staufen 2 joue un rôle déterminant dans la mGluR-LTD induite en cultures. Dans leur ensemble, les résultats de la présente étude viennent appuyer un modèle de régulation de la traduction locale de protéines qui est indépendante de l’initiation.

Studies of cap-independent mRNA translation in Drosophila melanogaster

Control of protein synthesis is a key step in the regulation of gene expression during apoptosis and the heat shock response. Under such conditions, cap-dependent translation is impaired and Internal Ribosome Entry Site (IRES)-dependent translation plays a major role in mammalian cells. Although the role of IRES-dependent translation during apoptosis has been mainly studied in mammals, its role in the translation of Drosophila apoptotic genes has not been yet studied. The observation that the Drosophila mutant embryos for the cap-binding protein, the eukaryotic initiation factor eIF4E, exhibits increased apoptosis in correlation with up-regulated proapoptotic gene reaper (rpr) transcription constitutes the first evidence for the existence of a cap-independent mechanism for the translation of Drosophila proapoptotic genes. The mechanism of translation of rpr and other proapoptotic genes was investigated in this work. We found that the 5 UTR of rpr mRNA drives translation in an IRES-dependent manner. It promotes the translation of reporter RNAs in vitro either in the absence of cap, in the presence of cap competitors, or in extracts derived from heat shocked and eIF4E mutant embryos and in vivo in cells transfected with reporters bearing a non functional cap structure, indicating that cap recognition is not required in rpr mRNA for translation. We also show that rpr mRNA 5 UTR exhibits a high degree of similarity with that of Drosophila heat shock protein 70 mRNA (hsp70), an antagonist of apoptosis, and that both are able to conduct IRES-mediated translation. The proapoptotic genes head involution defective (hid) and grim, but not sickle, also display IRES activity. Studies of mRNA association to polysomes in embryos indicate that both rpr, hsp70, hid and grim endogenous mRNAs are recruited to polysomes in embryos in which apoptosis or thermal stress was induced. We conclude that hsp70 and, on the other hand, rpr, hid and grim which are antagonizing factors during apoptosis, use a similar mechanism for protein synthesis. The outcome for the cell would thus depend on which protein is translated under a given stress condition. Factors involved in the differential translation driven by these IRES could play an important role. For this purpose, we undertook the identification of the ribonucleoprotein (RNP) complexes assembled onto the 5 UTR of rpr mRNA. We established a tobramycin-affinity-selection protocol that allows the purification of specific RNP that can be further analyzed by mass spectrometry. Several RNA binding proteins were identified as part of the rpr 5 UTR RNP complex, some of which have been related to IRES activity. The involvement of one of them, the La antigen, in the translation of rpr mRNA, was established by RNA-crosslinking experiments using recombinant protein and rpr 5 UTR and by the analysis of the translation efficiency of reporter mRNAs in Drosophila cells after knock down of the endogenous La by RNAi experiments. Several uncharacterized proteins were also identified, suggesting that they might play a role during translation, during the assembly of the translational machinery or in the priming of the mRNA before ribosome recognition. Our data provide evidence for the involvement of La antigen in the translation of rpr mRNA and set a protocol for purification of tagged-RNA-protein complexes from cytoplasmic extracts. To further understand the mechanisms of translation initiation in Drosophila, we analyzed the role of eIF4B on cap-dependent and cap-independent translation. We showed that eIF4B is mostly involved in cap-, but not IRES-dependent translation as it happens in mammals.

Das RNA-bindende Protein Orb2 und seine regulatorische Funktion in der Spermatogenese von Drosophila melanogaster

Das Protein Orb2, welches zum Xenopus CPEB homolog ist, erfüllt während der Spermatogenese von Drosophila melanogaster eine wesentliche Funktion. Das teilweise Ausschalten von orb2 führt zu Störungen in der Individualisierung der Spermatiden, Veränderung in der Morphologie und Lokalisation der Spermatidenkerne und damit verbunden zu männlicher Sterilität. Der weit gestreute Phänotyp spricht für eine regulatorische Funktion des Proteins, wie es aufgrund der Homologie zu CPEB zu erwarten ist. Orb2 mutante Weibchen zeigen dagegen keinen Phänotyp. Die Sterilität konnte mit spezifischen Rettungskonstrukten rückgängig gemacht werden, wobei die beiden Proteinformen in ihrer Funktion höchstwahrscheinlich äquivalent sind, da eine größere Menge an kleinem Protein das Fehlen des größeren ausgleichen kann. Beide Proteinformen lokalisieren in fast alle Stadien der Spermatogenese, wobei nur das kleinere auch in reifen Spermien persistiert. Zur Untersuchung der regulatorischen Funktion des Proteins Orb2 wurden zunächst drei mögliche Protein-Interaktionskandidaten analysiert. Obwohl ähnliche mutante Phänotypen in Gap und Cup ausgelöst wurden, lässt sich eine Interaktion bis jetzt mit diesen Kandidaten weder ausschließen noch bestätigen. Daneben zeigte das Protein Tob eine ähnliche Lokalisierung und einen deutlich ähnlicheren mutanten Phänotyp, wie er für Orb2 beschrieben wurde. Besonders auffällig ist die Lokalisation der Tob mRNA an die Spermatidenenden und die Verringerung der Transkriptmenge in der orb2-Mutante. Ob dieser Phänotyp durch den Verlust der regulatorischen Funktion von Orb2 hervorgerufen wird oder durch den späten Zeitpunkt der Transkription bedingt ist, muß in späteren Experimenten geklärt werden. Mit Hilfe eines Co-Immunpräzipitations-Experimentes wurde nach weiteren Proteininteraktionspartnern sowie nach Ziel-mRNAs gesucht, die durch Orb2 reguliert werden könnten. Dabei ergaben die massenspektrometrischen Analysen zwar Proteine, die mit der Translation selbst in Zusammenhang stehen, sowie einige regulatorische RNA-bindende Proteine, wiesen aber auch in Gestalt eines häufig nachgewiesenen Anhangsdrüsenproteins auf deutliche systematische Probleme hin. Auf genetischem Wege war bereits der Nachweis gelungen, dass die Protamine und mst77F, die strukturelle Komponenten der kompaktierten Kern-DNA sind, durch Orb2 in ihrer Translation reprimiert werden. Dieses Ergebnis wurde zum Teil bestätigt durch den Nachweis der Protamin mRNAs in den Eluaten aus dem Co-Immunpräzipitationsexperiment. Damit konnte zum ersten Mal in der Drosophila Spermatogenese das regulatorische Protein zu einer translationskontrollierten mRNA identifiziert werden.

Neue Wege zur Proteinsynthese IRES-vermittelte Translation und die Bedeutung von dicistronischen mRNAs bei Drosophila

In dieser Arbeit ist die zentrale Frage, warum dicistronische mRNAs, eine für Eukaryoten untypische Organisation, existieren und wie die Translation des zweiten offenen Leserasters initiiert wird. In sieben von neun anfänglich ausgewählten Genkassetten werden tatsächlich nur dicistronische und keine monocistronischen Transkripte gebildet. Im Laufe der Evolution scheint diese Organisation nicht immer erhalten zu bleiben - es finden sich Hinweise für einen operonartigen Aufbau. Nach Transformation mit einem dicistronischen Reporterkonstrukt und in in vitro Translations-Assays weisen die beiden Genkassetten CG31311 und CG33009 eine interne ribosomale Eintrittstelle (IRES) auf, welche die Translation des zweiten Cistrons einleiten kann. Diese beiden IRESs lassen sich in einen Bereich von unter 100 nt eingrenzen. Die Funktionalität der beiden nachgewiesenen IRESs konnte in vivo in der männlichen Keimbahn von Drosophila bestätigt werden, nachdem das Vorhandensein von kryptischen Promotoren in diesen Bereichen ausgeschlossen wurde. Die anderen fünf Genkassetten hingegen zeigen keine IRES-Aktivität und nutzen wahrscheinlich alternative Methoden wie das leaky scanning oder ribosomal shunting zur Translation des zweiten Cistrons. In weiterführenden Analysen wurden sehr komplexe Expressionsmuster beobachtet, die nicht offensichtlich mit der beschriebenen mRNA Organisation in Einklang zu bringen sind. Bei der Genkassette CG33009 zum Beispiel wird das erste Protein während der gesamten Spermatogenese in den Keimzellen synthetisiert, wohingegen das zweite IRES-abhängig translatierte Protein in den die Keimzellen umschließenden Cystenzellen und zusätzlich in den elongierten Spermatiden auftritt. Diese zusätzliche Expression könnte auf Transportprozessen oder Neusynthese beruhen. Die Cystenzell-spezische Expression eines Fusionskonstruktes führte jedoch nicht zum Nachweis des Fusionsproteins in den Keimzellen. Somit ist eine durch die IRES-vermittelte Neusynthese in den elongierten Spermatiden wahrscheinlicher. Ein Verlust dieses IRES-abhängig translatierten Proteins in den Cystenzellen bringt die Spermatogenese zum Erliegen und belegt somit dessen essentielle Funktion. Bei der Genkassette CG31311 kommt es auch zu einer bemerkenswerten Auffälligkeit in der Expression. Während im Hodengewebe große Mengen an Transkript vorhanden sind, die aber nicht zu nachweisbaren Mengen an Protein führen, lässt sich in den Ommatidien ein differenziertes Expressionsmuster für beide Proteine dokumentieren, obwohl die Transkriptmenge hier unterhalb der Nachweisgrenze liegt. Diese Beobachtung suggeriert eine drastische Kontrolle auf Translationsebene, die für das Hodengewebe zum Beispiel in einer Verzögerung der Translation bis nach der Befruchtung bestehen könnte (paternale mRNA). Erste Ansätze zeigen die Interaktion der IRES von CG33009 mit RNA-bindenden Proteinen, potentiellen ITAFs (IRES trans-acting factors), deren Bindung sequenzspezisch erfolgt. In weiteren Experimenten wäre zu testen, ob die hier identifizierten IRESs mit den gleichen oder mit unterschiedlichen Proteinen interagieren.

Annotation and characterization of the Plasmodium vivax rhoptry neck protein 4 (PvRON4)

Background: The tight junction (TJ) is one of the most important structures established during merozoite invasion of host cells and a large amount of proteins stored in Toxoplasma and Plasmodium parasites’ apical organelles are involved in forming the TJ. Plasmodium falciparum and Toxoplasma gondii apical membrane antigen 1 (AMA-1) and rhoptry neck proteins (RONs) are the two main TJ components. It has been shown that RON4 plays an essential role during merozoite and sporozoite invasion to target cells. This study has focused on characterizing a novel Plasmodium vivax rhoptry protein, RON4, which is homologous to PfRON4 and PkRON4. Methods: The ron4 gene was re-annotated in the P. vivax genome using various bioinformatics tools and taking PfRON4 and PkRON4 amino acid sequences as templates. Gene synteny, as well as identity and similarity values between open reading frames (ORFs) belonging to the three species were assessed. The gene transcription of pvron4, and the expression and localization of the encoded protein were also determined in the VCG-1 strain by molecular and immunological studies. Nucleotide and amino acid sequences obtained for pvron4 in VCG-1 were compared to those from strains coming from different geographical areas. Results: PvRON4 is a 733 amino acid long protein, which is encoded by three exons, having similar transcription and translation patterns to those reported for its homologue, PfRON4. Sequencing PvRON4 from the VCG-1 strain and comparing it to P. vivax strains from different geographical locations has shown two conserved regions separated by a low complexity variable region, possibly acting as a “smokescreen”. PvRON4 contains a predicted signal sequence, a coiled-coil α-helical motif, two tandem repeats and six conserved cysteines towards the carboxyterminus and is a soluble protein lacking predicted transmembranal domains or a GPI anchor. Indirect immunofluorescence assays have shown that PvRON4 is expressed at the apical end of schizonts and co-localizes at the rhoptry neck with PvRON2.

Nucleolin is regulated both at the level of transcription and translation

Nucleolin is a multi-functional protein that is located to the nucleolus. In tissue Culture cells, the stability of nucleolin is related to the proliferation status of the cell. During development, rat cardiomyocytes proliferate actively with increases in the mass of the heart being due to both hyperplasia and hypertrophy. The timing of this shift in the phenotype of the myocyte from one capable of undergoing hyperplasia to one that can grow only by hypertrophy occurs within 4 days of post-natal development. Thus, cardiomyocytes are an ideal model system in which to study the regulation of nucleolin during growth in vivo. Using Western blot and quantitative RT-PCR (TaqMan) we found that the amount of nucleolin is regulated both at the level of transcription and translation during the development of the cardiomyocyte. However, in cells which had exited the cell cycle and were subsequently given a hypertrophic stimulus, nucleolin was regulated post-transcriptionally. (c) 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Calicivirus translation initiation requires an interaction between VPg and eIF4E

Unlike other positive-stranded RNA viruses that use either a 5'-cap structure or an internal ribosome entry site to direct translation of their messenger RNA, calicivirus translation is dependent on the presence of a protein covalently linked to the 50 end of the viral genome (VPg). We have shown a direct interaction of the calicivirus VPg with the cap-binding protein eIF4E. This interaction is required for calicivirus mRNA translation, as sequestration of eIF4E by 4E-BP1 inhibits translation. Functional analysis has shown that VPg does not interfere with the interaction between eIF4E and the cap structure or 4E-BP1, suggesting that VPg binds to eIF4E at a different site from both cap and 4E-BP1. This work lends support to the idea that calicivirus VPg acts as a novel 'cap substitute' during initiation of translation on virus mRNA.

Reduced incorporation of the influenza B virus BM2 protein in virus particles decreases infectivity

BM2 is the fourth integral membrane protein encoded by the influenza B virus genome. It is synthesized late in infection and transported to the plasma membrane from where it is subsequently incorporated into progeny virus particles. It has recently been reported that BM2 has ion channel activity and may be the functional homologue of the influenza A virus M2 protein acting as an ion channel involved in viral entry. Using a reverse genetic approach it was not possible to recover virus which lacked BM2. A recombinant influenza B virus was generated in which the BM2 AUG initiation codon was mutated to GUG. This decreased the efficiency of translation of BM2 protein such that progeny virions contained only 1/8 the amount of BM2 seen in wild-type virus. The reduction in BM2 incorporation resulted in a reduction in infectivity although there was no concomitant decrease in the numbers of virions released from the infected cells. These data imply that the incorporation of sufficient BM2 protein into influenza B virions is required for infectivity of the virus particles. (C) 2004 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Arenavirus budding resulting from viral-protein-associated cell membrane curvature

Viral replication occurs within cells, with release (and onward infection) primarily achieved through two alternative mechanisms: lysis, in which virions emerge as the infected cell dies and bursts open; or budding, in which virions emerge gradually from a still living cell by appropriating a small part of the cell membrane. Virus budding is a poorly understood process that challenges current models of vesicle formation. Here, a plausible mechanism for arenavirus budding is presented, building on recent evidence that viral proteins embed in the inner lipid layer of the cell membrane. Experimental results confirm that viral protein is associated with increased membrane curvature, whereas a mathematical model is used to show that localized increases in curvature alone are sufficient to generate viral buds. The magnitude of the protein-induced curvature is calculated from the size of the amphipathic region hypothetically removed from the inner membrane as a result of translation, with a change in membrane stiffness estimated from observed differences in virion deformation as a result of protein depletion. Numerical results are based on experimental data and estimates for three arenaviruses, but the mechanisms described are more broadly applicable. The hypothesized mechanism is shown to be sufficient to generate spontaneous budding that matches well both qualitatively and quantitatively with experimental observations.

A decade of plant proteomics and mass spectrometry: translation of technical advancements to food security and safety issues

Tremendous progress in plant proteomics driven by mass spectrometry (MS) techniques has been made since 2000 when few proteomics reports were published and plant proteomics was in its infancy. These achievements include the refinement of existing techniques and the search for new techniques to address food security, safety, and health issues. It is projected that in 2050, the world’s population will reach 9–12 billion people demanding a food production increase of 34–70% (FAO, 2009) from today’s food production. Provision of food in a sustainable and environmentally committed manner for such a demand without threatening natural resources, requires that agricultural production increases significantly and that postharvest handling and food manufacturing systems become more efficient requiring lower energy expenditure, a decrease in postharvest losses, less waste generation and food with longer shelf life. There is also a need to look for alternative protein sources to animal based (i.e., plant based) to be able to fulfill the increase in protein demands by 2050. Thus, plant biology has a critical role to play as a science capable of addressing such challenges. In this review, we discuss proteomics especially MS, as a platform, being utilized in plant biology research for the past 10 years having the potential to expedite the process of understanding plant biology for human benefits. The increasing application of proteomics technologies in food security, analysis, and safety is emphasized in this review. But, we are aware that no unique approach/technology is capable to address the global food issues. Proteomics-generated information/resources must be integrated and correlated with other omics-based approaches, information, and conventional programs to ensure sufficient food and resources for human development now and in the future.

Regulation of protein kinase B and 4E-BP1 by oxidative stress in cardiac myocytes.

Stimulation of phosphatidylinositol 3'-kinase (PI3K) and protein kinase B (PKB) is implicated in the regulation of protein synthesis in various cells. One mechanism involves PI3K/PKB-dependent phosphorylation of 4E-BP1, which dissociates from eIF4E, allowing initiation of translation from the 7-methylGTP cap of mRNAs. We examined the effects of insulin and H(2)O(2) on this pathway in neonatal cardiac myocytes. Cardiac myocyte protein synthesis was increased by insulin, but was inhibited by H(2)O(2). PI3K inhibitors attenuated basal levels of protein synthesis and inhibited the insulin-induced increase in protein synthesis. Insulin or H(2)O(2) increased the phosphorylation (activation) of PKB through PI3K, but, whereas insulin induced a sustained response, the response to H(2)O(2) was transient. 4E-BP1 was phosphorylated in unstimulated cells, and 4E-BP1 phosphorylation was increased by insulin. H(2)O(2) stimulated dephosphorylation of 4E-BP1 by increasing protein phosphatase (PP1/PP2A) activity. This increased the association of 4E-BP1 with eIF4E, consistent with H(2)O(2) inhibition of protein synthesis. The effects of H(2)O(2) were sufficient to override the stimulation of protein synthesis and 4E-BP1 phosphorylation induced by insulin. These results indicate that PI3K and PKB are important regulators of protein synthesis in cardiac myocytes, but other factors, including phosphatase activity, modulate the overall response.

Regulation of gene and protein expression in cardiac myocyte hypertrophy and apoptosis

Considerable efforts have been expended in elucidating the inter-cellular and intra-cellular signaling pathways which elicit cardiac myocyte hypertrophy or apoptosis, and in identifying the changes which are associated with the end-stage of the response. The challenge now is to link the two. Although some of the signaling effects will be the acute modulation of existing protein function, long-term effects which bring about and maintain the hypertrophic state or which culminate in cell death are mediated at the level of gene and protein expression. With the advances in micro-array technology and genome sequencing, it is now possible to obtain a picture of the global gene expression profile in myocytes or in whole heart which dictates the proteins which could be made. This is not the final picture since additional regulation at the level of translation modulates the relative proportions of each protein that can be made from the transcriptome. Even here, further regulation of protein stability and turnover means that ultimately it is still necessary to examine the proteome to determine what may cause the functional changes in a cell. Thus, in order to gain a full picture of events which regulate the response and gain some insight into possible points of intervention for therapy, it is necessary to examine gene expression, mRNA translation and protein expression in concert.

Insights on eukaryotic translation initiation factor 5A (eIF5A) in the brain and aging

Long-term memory, a persistent form of synaptic plasticity, requires translation of a subset of mRNA present in neuronal dendrites during a short and critical period through a mechanism not yet fully elucidated. Western blotting analysis revealed a high content of eukaryotic translation initiation factor 5A (eIF5A) in the brain of neonatal rats, a period of intense neurogenesis rate, differentiation and synaptic establishment, when compared to adult rats. Immunohistochemistry analysis revealed that eIF5A is present in the whole brain of adult rats showing a variable content among the cells from different areas (e.g. cortex, hippocampus and cerebellum). A high content of eIF5A in the soma and dendrites of Purkinje cells, key neurons in the control of motor long-term memory in the cerebellum, was observed. Detection of high eIF5A content was revealed in dendritic varicosities of Purkinje cells. Evidence is presented herein that a reduction of eIF5A content is associated to brain aging. (C) 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

T3 acutely increases GH mRNA translation rate and GH secretion in hypothyroid rats

Cytoskeleton controls the stability of transcripts, by mechanisms that involve mRNAs and eEF1A attachment to it. Besides, it plays a key role in protein synthesis and secretion, which seems to be impaired in somatotrophs of hypothyroid rats, whose cytoskeleton is disarranged. This study investigated the: eEF1A and GH mRNA binding to cytoskeleton plus GH mRNA translation rate and GH secretion, in sham-operated and thyroidectomized rats treated with T3 or saline, and killed 30 min thereafter. Thyroidectomy reduced: (a) pituitary F-actin content, and eEF1A plus GH mRNA binding to it; (b) GH mRNA recruitment to polysome; and (c) liver IGF-1 mRNA expression, indicating that GH mRNA stability and translation rate, as well as GH secretion were impaired. T3 acutely reversed all these changes, which points toward a nongenomic action of T3 on cytoskeleton rearrangement, which might contribute to the increase on GH mRNA translation rate and GH secretion. (C) 2009 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.