Pacific Salmon, Oncorhynchus spp., and the Definition of "Species" Under the Endangered Species Act

For purposes ofthe Endangered Species Act (ESA), a "species" is defined to include "any distinct population segment of any species of vertebrate fish or wildlife which interbreeds when mature. "Federal agencies charged with carrying out the provisions of the ESA have struggled for over a decade to develop a consistent approach for interpreting the term "distinct population segment." This paper outlines such an approach and explains in some detail how it can be applied to ESA evaluations of anadromous Pacific salmonids. The following definition is proposed: A population (or group of populations) will be considered "distinct" (and hence a "species ")for purposes of the ESA if it represents an evolutionarily significant unit (ESU) of the biological species. A population must satisfy two criteria to be considered an ESU: 1) It must be substantially reproductively isolated from other conspecific population units, and 2) It must represent an important component in the evolutionary legacy of the species. Isolation does not have to be absolute, but it must be strong enough to permit evolutionarily important differences to accrue in different population units. The second criterion would be met if the population contributes substantially to the ecological/genetic diversity of the species as a whole. Insights into the extent of reproductive isolation can be provided by movements of tagged fish, natural recolonization rates observed in other populations, measurements of genetic differences between populations, and evaluations of the efficacy of natural barriers. Each of these methods has its limitations. Identification of physical barriers to genetic exchange can help define the geographic extent of distinct populations, but reliance on physical features alone can be misleading in the absence of supporting biological information. Physical tags provide information about the movements of individual fish but not the genetic consequences of migration. Furthermore, measurements ofc urrent straying or recolonization rates provide no direct information about the magnitude or consistency of such rates in the past. In this respect, data from protein electrophoresis or DNA analyses can be very useful because they reflect levels of gene flow that have occurred over evolutionary time scales. The best strategy is to use all available lines of evidence for or against reproductive isolation, recognizing the limitations of each and taking advantage of the often complementary nature of the different types of information. If available evidence indicates significant reproductive isolation, the next step is to determine whether the population in question is of substantial ecological/genetic importance to the species as a whole. In other words, if the population became extinct, would this event represent a significant loss to the ecological/genetic diversity of thes pecies? In making this determination, the following questions are relevant: 1) Is the population genetically distinct from other conspecific populations? 2) Does the population occupy unusual or distinctive habitat? 3) Does the population show evidence of unusual or distinctive adaptation to its environment? Several types of information are useful in addressing these questions. Again, the strengths and limitations of each should be kept in mind in making the evaluation. Phenotypic/life-history traits such as size, fecundity, and age and time of spawning may reflect local adaptations of evolutionary importance, but interpretation of these traits is complicated by their sensitivity to environmental conditions. Data from protein electrophoresis or DNA analyses provide valuable insight into theprocessofgenetic differentiation among populations but little direct information regarding the extent of adaptive genetic differences. Habitat differences suggest the possibility for local adaptations but do not prove that such adaptations exist. The framework suggested here provides a focal point for accomplishing the majorgoal of the Act-to conserve the genetic diversity of species and the ecosystems they inhabit. At the same time, it allows discretion in the listing of populations by requiring that they represent units of real evolutionary significance to the species. Further, this framework provides a means of addressing several issues of particular concern for Pacific salmon, including anadromous/nonanadromous population segments, differences in run-timing, groups of populations, introduced populations, and the role of hatchery fish.

Ativismo judicial no Sistema Tributário Nacional: interpretação do aspecto material das regras de competência

O presente trabalho tem por objetivo analisar o controle judicial sobre as leis de incidência tributária, criticando a postura ativista e prestigiando a interpretação da Constituição pelo Legislativo. Ao longo da história da jurisdição constitucional brasileira, diversos fatores contribuíram para o fortalecimento do Judiciário em relação aos demais poderes: o constitucionalismo, com o reconhecimento da força normativa da Constituição, a doutrina da tipicidade fechada em Direito Tributário, a natureza de regra definitiva das normas de repartição de competência tributária, a vagueza da linguagem constitucional, entre outros. Como consequência, é comum que o Supremo Tribunal Federal declare a inconstitucionalidade de leis com base em concepções formadas jurisprudencialmente, como se o Sistema Tributário Nacional estivesse completamente encerrado na Constituição, e não fosse também construído pela lei. Serão apresentadas algumas alternativas para essa postura, tais como: a teoria dos diálogos constitucionais, a autocontenção judicial, a adoção de pluralidade metodológica no lugar de critérios apriorísticos de interpretação, a adoção de conceitos constitucionais dotados de núcleos semânticos rodeados de outros possíveis conteúdos marginais, e o reconhecimento do papel criativo e decisório da discricionariedade legislativa na interpretação das normas constitucionais de competência.

Intervenção humanitária e a mudança do paradigma do jus ad bellum no Direito Internacional contemporâneo

A partir do exame da formação e identificação da norma consuetudinária, consoante os pressupostos da teoria dos dois elementos, investiga-se a índole consuetudinária das intervenções humanitárias no contexto do Direito Internacional Contemporâneo, a fim de verificar se tais práticas estatais teriam se constituído em um costume internacional e, por conseguinte, se elas ampliaram o rol das exceções ao princípio da proibição do uso da força pelos Estados nas relações internacionais esculpido no artigo 2 (4) da Carta das Nações Unidas. Dada a polissemia existente para a expressão intervenção humanitária, esta pode ser compreendida como o recurso à força armada por um Estado, ou grupo de Estados, para além das suas fronteiras, conforme discricionariedade própria, ou seja, sem a autorização do CSNU, com o propósito de cessar práticas em largas escalas, persistentes e generalizadas, comissivas ou omissivas, de graves violações dos Direito Humanos e Internacional Humanitário. A partir da apuração dos elementos que conformam esse conceito estabelecido, do exame dos casos de ocorrência e das justificativas legais apresentadas pelos Estados interventores para essa prática interventiva, conjugado com a reação dos demais Estados à essa conduta, por uma considerável e persistente falta de expresso reconhecimento do caráter de direito para a intervenção humanitária, é possível afirmar que os Estados sucessivamente reafirmaram o reconhecimento do princípio da interdição do uso da força pelos Estados nas suas relações internacionais e, que nos quadros do Direito Internacional contemporâneo, a este tipo de intervenção não é um costume internacional porque carece de opinio iuris.

Características dos tributos diferidos nas companhias abertas brasileiras após a adoção das IFRS

Esta pesquisa investigou as motivações econômicas que explicam o nível de reconhecimento dos tributos diferidos sobre o lucro nas companhias abertas brasileiras no período inicial de adoção das IFRS no Brasil e da vigência obrigatória do Regime Tributário de Transição. Foram selecionadas companhias abertas não financeiras brasileiras componentes no índice IBrX 100, sendo identificadas 68 companhias nos anos de 2010 à 2013 compreendendo assim 272 observações. A análise descritiva dos dados evidenciou que o montante dos passivos fiscais diferidos foi superior ao montante dos ativos fiscais diferidos em todos os anos pesquisados, situação esta que contrata com o cenário pré-IFRS onde existiam menos passivos fiscais diferidos devido às reduzidas opções de exclusões temporárias, e que os ativos fiscais diferidos são majoritariamente oriundos de diferenças temporárias, porém ocorrendo um crescimento maior dos créditos fiscais referentes a prejuízos fiscais no período combinado com uma evolução maior dos ativos fiscais totais do que dos passivos fiscais diferidos. Por meio da análise multivariada de regressão múltipla com dados em painel foi possível constatar que: (i) não há relacionamento significativo entre o reconhecimento de tributos diferidos e o endividamento da empresa, isto é, não existe evidência que as companhias utilizem os tributos diferidos com a finalidade de influenciar o nível de endividamento, apesar da possibilidade de quebra de covenants e, consequentemente, aumento de seu risco de crédito, (ii) as maiores empresas tendem a registrar um valor menor de ativos fiscais diferidos líquidos de forma a reduzir seus lucros e divulgar sua sobretaxação a fim de reduzir sua exposição pública, e (iii) as empresas menos lucrativas são propensas a reconhecer um montante maior de ativos fiscais diferidos líquidos para, presumivelmente, atenuar o baixo resultado da empresa e com isso mascarar o seu fraco desempenho, e também, por outro lado, as companhias que possuem maior rentabilidade tendem a registrar valores menores de ativos fiscais diferidos líquidos no sentido de reduzir o lucro, e com isso, diminuir seus custos políticos. Assim, os resultados obtidos sugerem que as empresas utilizam a discricionariedade proporcionada pela regulação contábil dos tributos diferidos para atingir seus objetivos e demandas, no sentido de reduzir sua exposição pública e melhorar sua rentabilidade.

Motivação e discricionariedade: as razões de decidir e o contraditório como elementos legitimadores da atuação judicial

O objetivo do presente trabalho é demonstrar que uma releitura dos princípios do contraditório e do dever de motivar as decisões judiciais, sob a ótica da maior participação dos jurisdicionados, tem o condão de alcançar a esperada legitimidade democrática da atuação judicial. Para tanto, antes de adentrar ao cerne da questão, buscou-se analisar ordenamentos de tradições jurídicas distintas, civil law e common law, a fim de delinear as perspectivas que referidos sistemas enxergavam o dever de motivar a decisão judicial. O estudo convergiu para o momento atual do direito, iniciado na segunda metade do séc. XX com o movimento de constitucionalização e, consequentemente, judicialização dos direitos. Uma das maiores críticas ao momento vivido é o amplo espaço interpretativo do juiz, abrindo as portas para a discricionariedade, o que foi combatido e rechaçado tendo como parâmetro as origens do instituto. Passado referido ponto, discutiu-se sobre as evoluções e novas tendências que circundam os princípios do contraditório e do dever de motivar, cuja finalidade foi demonstrar a estreita conexão entre as normas. Conclusão inexorável foi que ambos compõem a base das garantias processuais que legitimam a atuação judicial democrática. Por fim, procurou-se tecer alguns comentários sobre os equívocos cometidos na interpretação do princípio do convencimento judicial, e como essa perspectiva pode ser alterada com as diretivas presentes no projeto do novo Código de Processo Civil, haja vista que suas previsões abraçam boa parte das ideias debatidas no presente trabalho.

Police accountability in Ireland: an analysis of the problems posed by the legal, constitutional and political dimensions and how they might be addressed

The concept of police accountability is not susceptible to a universal or concise definition. In the context of this thesis it is treated as embracing two fundamental components. First, it entails an arrangement whereby an individual, a minority and the whole community have the opportunity to participate meaningfully in the formulation of the principles and policies governing police operations. Second, it presupposes that those who have suffered as victims of unacceptable police behaviour should have an effective remedy. These ingredients, however, cannot operate in a vacuum. They must find an accommodation with the equally vital requirement that the burden of accountability should not be so demanding that the delivery of an effective police service is fatally impaired. While much of the current debate on police accountability in Britain and the USA revolves around the issue of where the balance should be struck in this accommodation, Ireland lacks the very foundation for such a debate as it suffers from a serious deficit in research and writing on police generally. This thesis aims to fill that gap by laying the foundations for an informed debate on police accountability and related aspects of police in Ireland. Broadly speaking the thesis contains three major interrelated components. The first is concerned with the concept of police in Ireland and the legal, constitutional and political context in which it operates. This reveals that although the Garda Siochana is established as a national force the legal prescriptions concerning its role and governance are very vague. Although a similar legislative format in Britain, and elsewhere, have been interpreted as conferring operational autonomy on the police it has not stopped successive Irish governments from exercising close control over the police. The second component analyses the structure and operation of the traditional police accountability mechanisms in Ireland; namely the law and the democratic process. It concludes that some basic aspects of the peculiar legal, constitutional and political structures of policing seriously undermine their capacity to deliver effective police accountability. In the case of the law, for example, the status of, and the broad discretion vested in, each individual member of the force ensure that the traditional legal actions cannot always provide redress where individuals or collective groups feel victimised. In the case of the democratic process the integration of the police into the excessively centralised system of executive government, coupled with the refusal of the Minister for Justice to accept responsibility for operational matters, project a barrier between the police and their accountability to the public. The third component details proposals on how the current structures of police accountability in Ireland can be strengthened without interfering with the fundamentals of the law, the democratic process or the legal and constitutional status of the police. The key elements in these proposals are the establishment of an independent administrative procedure for handling citizen complaints against the police and the establishment of a network of local police-community liaison councils throughout the country coupled with a centralised parliamentary committee on the police. While these proposals are analysed from the perspective of maximising the degree of police accountability to the public they also take into account the need to ensure that the police capacity to deliver an effective police service is not unduly impaired as a result.

The ways in which new public management ideas impact upon the administrative culture of 'street-level' bureaucrats and professionals working within Irish social policy

The conventional meaning of culture is ‘widely shared and strongly held values’ of a particular group or society (Bradley and Parker, 2006: 89). Culture is not a rigid concept; it can be influenced or altered by new ideas or forces. This research examines the ways in which one set of ideas in particular, that is, those associated with New Public Management, have impacted upon the administrative culture of 'street-level' bureaucrats and professionals within Irish social policy. Lipsky (1980: 3) defined 'street-level' bureaucrats as ‘public service workers who interact directly with citizens in the course of their jobs, and who have substantial discretion in the execution of their work’. Utilising the Competing Values Framework (CVF) in the analysis of eighty three semi-structured interviews with 'street-level' bureaucrats and professionals, an evaluation is made as to the impact of NPM ideas on both visible and invisible aspects of administrative culture. Overall, the influence of NPM is confined to superficial aspects of administrative culture such as; increased flexibility in working hours and to some degree job contracts; increased time commitment; and a customer service focus. However, the extent of these changes varies depending on policy sector and occupational group. Aspects of consensual and hierarchical cultures remain firmly in place. These coincide with features of developmental and market cultures. Contrary to the view that members of hierarchical and consensual culture would pose resistance to change, this research clearly illustrates that a very large appetite for change exists in the attitudes of 'street-level' bureaucrats and professionals within Irish social policy, with many of them suggesting changes that correspond to NPM ideas. This study demonstrates the relevance of employing the CVF model as it is clear that administrative culture is very much a dynamic system of competing and co-existing cultures.

Due to her tender age: Black girls and childhood on trial in South Carolina, 1885-1920

Drawing on local criminal court records in western and central South Carolina, this dissertation follows the legal experiences of black girls in South Carolina courts between 1885 and 1920, a time span that includes the aftermath of Reconstruction and the foundational years of Jim Crow. While scholars continue to debate the degree to which black children were included in evolving conversations about childhood and child protection, this dissertation argues that black girls were critical to turn-of-the century debates about all children's roles in society. Far from invisible in the courts and jails of their time, black girls found themselves in the crosshairs of varying forms of power --including intraracial community surveillance, burgeoning local government, Progressive reform initiatives and military policy -- particularly when it came to matters of sexuality and reproduction. Their presence in South Carolina courts established boundaries between early childhood, adolescence and womanhood and pushed legal stakeholders to consider the legal implication of age, race, and gender in criminal proceedings. Age had a complicated effect on black girls' legal encounters; very young black girls were often able to claim youth and escape harsher punishments, while courts often used judicial discretion to levy heavier sentences to adolescents and violent girl offenders. While courts helped to separate early childhood from the middle years, they also provided a space for African-American children and family to engage a legal system that was moving rapidly toward disenfranchising blacks.

Return of deposits

Explores case law illustrating the circumstances in which the courts are likely to order the return of a deposit in the event of a buyer's default. Notes the unwillingness of the courts to apply the rule on penalties to deposits and discusses the court's discretion under the Law of Property Act 1925 s.49(2) to order repayment. Focuses on the Chancery Division ruling in Aribisala v St James Homes (Grosvenor Dock) Ltd giving guidance on the circumstances in which the discretion under s.49(2) should be exercised.

Returning to deposits...

Examines the Court of Appeal ruling in Midill (97PL) Ltd v Park Lane Estates Ltd on whether the court should exercise its discretion to return a deposit paid under a contract for the sale of a property where, despite the claimant having defaulted on its purchase, the owner obtained a higher price than would have been paid by the claimant when it subsequently sold the property to a third party. Considers the need for special or exceptional circumstances to be present to override the rule that deposits were to be forfeited upon the purchaser's default.

Confidentiality or disclosure?

Considers the discretion of the trustees to disclose the settlor's wishes to the beneficiaries of a family discretionary trust. Discusses the confidentiality principle relating to family discretionary trusts and whether a settlor's wish letter falls within the scope of that principle. Sets out the guidance of the court in Breakspear v Ackland for trustees faced with a request for disclosure from a beneficiary.

Developing “middle leaders” in the public services? The realities of management and leadership development for public managers

Purpose – This paper aims to assess the actual contribution to organisational change of management and leadership development (MLD) activity for middle managers (MMs) in public service organisations (PSOs). Design/methodology/approach – Using the case study approach, the paper compares the content and outcomes of management and leadership training interventions for MMs in two large PSOs. The organisations, a fire brigade and a train operating company, are leaders in their sectors with respect to management development and “modernisation” of their services. Findings – The paper demonstrates how, in one case, MM development was largely an exercise in regulatory compliance, with little effect on individual MMs' performance or organisational outcomes. The second case demonstrates how MMs were effectively trained to enforce specific human resource policies which contributed to the successful implementation of top-down strategy yet paid little attention to the potential leadership role of MMs. Research limitations/implications – The paper highlights the need for further contextualised research at organisational level into the outcomes of MLD, especially in terms of different public service contexts. Practical implications – The paper demonstrates the dangers of designing and implementing development programmes without sufficient regard to professional practice and the realities of managerial discretion in PSOs. Originality/value – The paper provides an in-depth and contextualised insight into the conditions for success and failure in management development interventions in PSOs.

Place and Special Places: Innovations in Conservation Practice in Northern Ireland

The sense of place that relates human beings to their environment is under threat from the rising tide of placelessness which can result from potentially positive forces such as urban regeneration as well as negative ones such as incremental degradation. The concept of sense of place, and the need to protect and enhance special places, has underpinned UK conservation legislation and policy in the post-war era. In Northern Ireland, due to its distinctive settlement tradition, its troubled political circumstances and its centralised administrative system, a unique hierarchy of special places has evolved, involving areas of townscape and village character as well as conventional conservation areas. For the first time a comprehensive comparative survey of the townscape quality of most of these areas has been carried out in order to test the hypothesis that too many conservation area designations may devalue the conservation coinage. It also assesses the contribution that areas of townscape character can make in this situation, as potential conservation areas or as second-level local amenity designations. Its findings support the initial hypothesis: assessment of townscape quality on the basis of consistent criteria demonstrates a decline in the quality of more recent conservation area designations, and hence some devaluation of the coinage. However, the need for local discretion in the protection of local amenity supports the concept of areas of townscape and village character as an additional and distinct designation. This contradicts recent policy recommendations from the Northern Ireland Planning Commission and contains valuable lessons for conservation policy and practice in other parts of the UK.

Hillsborough: The Truth

Hillsborough: The Truth was first published in 1999 to universal acclaim. Established as the definitive, unique account of the disaster, in which 96 men, women and children died, hundreds were injured and thousands traumatised, it details the appalling treatment endured by the bereaved and survivors in the immediate aftermath and the inhumanity of the identification process. It reveals the inadequacies of the police investigations, official inquiries and inquests, uncovering the systematic review and alteration of South Yorkshire police statements conducted with the approval of police investigators and Lord Justice Taylor’s inquiry. It examines in depth the subsequent private prosecution and trial of two senior police officers in 2000. Using verbatim accounts, Scraton's detailed analysis demonstrates the inadequacy of legal processes and the remarkable breadth of judicial discretion, undermining and inhibiting such cases.

Powerful, disturbing and harrowing, Hillsborough: The Truth exposes the institutional complacency that made a tragedy on this scale inevitable. It shows the law’s failure to provide appropriate means of access, disclosure and redress for those facing the consequences of institutional neglect and personal negligence. And it tells how ordinary people suffer when those in authority sacrifice truth and accountability to protect their reputations. In this new edition Scraton reflects critically on two decades of policy and legal reform including crowd safety and inquest procedure and on the continuing struggles of the bereaved and survivors who have campaigned relentlessly for truth, acknowledgment and justice.

Sustainability and the Multifunctional Landscape: An Assessment of the Cairngorms National Park Authority’s Approach to Planning and Management in Upland Scotland.

Upland Scotland contains some of Britain’s most prized areas of natural heritage value. However, although such areas may appear both ‘wild’ and ‘remote’, these are typically working landscapes which symbolise the interdependence of nature and society. The complexity of this relationship means that management responses will need to address a multitude of potentially conflicting priorities whilst at the same time ensuring that sufficient social and institutional capital exists to allow for the promotion of landscape integrity. The introduction of national parks to Scotland in the form of the National Parks (Scotland) Act 2000 allows for a high-level of protection for designated areas in upland Scotland. Yet, whilst the recent Act outlines the statutory purpose and direction national parks should take, it allows a significant degree of flexibility in theway in which the Actmay be implemented. This level of discretion allows for significant local distinctiveness within the model but also raises questions about the potential effectiveness of chosen responses. In order to assess the potential implications of a model rooted in self-determination,we provide a case study review of the institutional basis of the Cairngorms National Park along with an assessment of the strategic character of the first National Park Plan. It is argued that whilst the Cairngorms National Park Authority has developed a significant level of stakeholder engagement, the authority may struggle to bridge the policy-implementation gap. Although a number of shortcomings are identified, particular concerns relate to the potential mismatch between strategic ambition and local level capacity.