It’s a Trap! Unravelling Reversible Charge Trapping in Nanocrystals Through Single Particle and Ensemble Studies

Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Washington, 2016-08

Ultra high pressure homogenization (UHPH) inactivation of Bacillus amyloliquefaciens spores in phosphate buffered saline (PBS) and milk

Ultra high pressure homogenization (UHPH) opens up new areas for dynamic high pressure assisted thermal sterilization of liquids. Bacillus amyloliquefaciens spores are resistant to high isostatic pressure and temperature and were suggested as potential surrogate for high pressure thermal sterilization validation. B. amyloliquefaciens spores suspended in PBS buffer (0.01 M, pH 7.0), low fat milk (1.5%, pH 6.7), and whole milk (3.5%, pH 6.7) at initial concentration of similar to 10(6) CFU/mL were subjected to UHPH treatments at 200, 300, and 350 MPa with an inlet temperature at similar to 80 degrees C. Thermal inactivation kinetics of B. amyloliquefaciens spores in PBS and milk were assessed with thin wall glass capillaries and modeled using first-order and Weibull models. The residence time during UHPH treatments was estimated to determine the contribution of temperature to spore inactivation by UHPH. No sublethal injury was detected after UHPH treatments using sodium chloride as selective component in the nutrient agar medium. The inactivation profiles of spores in PBS buffer and milk were compared and fat provided no clear protective effect for spores against treatments. Treatment at 200 MPa with valve temperatures lower than 125 degrees C caused no reduction of spores. A reduction of 3.5 log(10)CFU/mL of B. amyloliquefaciens spores was achieved by treatment at 350 MPa with a valve temperature higher than 150 degrees C. The modeled thermal inactivation and observed inactivation during UHPH treatments suggest that temperature could be the main lethal effect driving inactivation.

Simultaneous optimization of colloidal stability and interfacial charge transfer efficiency in photocatalytic Pt/CdS nanocrystals

Colloidal stability and efficient interfacial charge transfer in semiconductor nanocrystals are of great importance for photocatalytic applications in aqueous solution since they provide long-term functionality and high photocatalytic activity, respectively. However, colloidal stability and interfacial charge transfer efficiency are difficult to optimize simultaneously since the ligand layer often acts as both a shell stabilizing the nanocrystals in colloidal suspension and a barrier reducing the efficiency of interfacial charge transfer. Here, we show that, for cysteine-coated, Pt-decorated CdS nanocrystals and Na2SO3 as hole scavenger, triethanolamine (TEOA) replaces the original cysteine ligands in situ and prolongs the highly efficient and steady H2 evolution period by more than a factor of 10. It is shown that Na2SO3 is consumed during H2 generation while TEOA makes no significant contribution to the H2 generation. An apparent quantum yield of 31.5%, a turnover frequency of 0.11 H2/Pt/s, and an interfacial charge transfer rate faster than 0.3 ps were achieved in the TEOA stabilized system. The short length, branched structure and weak binding of TEOA to CdS as well as sufficient free TEOA in the solution are the keys to enhancing colloidal stability and maintaining efficient interfacial charge transfer at the same time. Additionally, TEOA is commercially available and cheap, and we anticipate that this approach can be widely applied in many photocatalytic applications involving colloidal nanocrystals.

Self-assembly of gold nanocrystals into discrete coupled plasmonic structures

Development of methodologies for the controlled chemical assembly of nanoparticles into plasmonic molecules of predictable spatial geometry is vital in order to harness novel properties arising from the combination of the individual components constituting the resulting superstructures. This paper presents a route for fabrication of gold plasmonic structures of controlled stoichiometry obtained by the use of a di-rhenium thio-isocyanide complex as linker molecule for gold nanocrystals. Correlated scanning electron microscopy (SEM)—dark-field spectroscopy was used to characterize obtained discrete monomer, dimer and trimer plasmonic molecules. Polarization-dependent scattering spectra of dimer structures showed highly polarized scattering response, due to their highly asymmetric D∞h geometry. In contrast, some trimer structures displayed symmetric geometry (D3h), which showed small polarization dependent response. Theoretical calculations were used to further understand and attribute the origin of plasmonic bands arising during linker-induced formation of plasmonic molecules. Theoretical data matched well with experimentally calculated data. These results confirm that obtained gold superstructures possess properties which are a combination of the properties arising from single components and can, therefore, be classified as plasmonic molecules

Silicon nanocrystals tailored for bioimaging and energy conversion

This thesis focus is the development of hybrid organic-inorganic systems based on Silicon Nanocrystals (SiNCs) with possible applications in the field of bioimaging and solar energy conversion. SiNCs were engineered thanks to the realization of a strong covalent Si-C bond on their surface, which allowed us to disperse them in different solvents with different final purpose. Chapter 1 introduces the basic properties of nanomaterials. Chapter 2 describes all the synthetic procedures to obtain the organic molecules-functionalized SiNCs. Chapter 3 illustrates an organic-inorganic antenna system based on SiNCs conjugated with diphenylanthracene (DPA) photoactive molecules, which was also embedded into Luminescent Solar Concentrators (LSC) made of a polymeric matrix. The optical and photovoltaic performances of this device were compared with the ones of a LSC embedded with a physical mixture made of SiNCs plus DPA at the same concentrations of the two components in the covalent system. Chapter 4 shows many different techniques to functionalize SiNCs with polyethylene glycol (PEG) chains in order to make them dispersible in water, for biomedical imaging applications. Chapter 5 presents the synthesis of dyes and/or SiNCs loaded Polymer Nanoparticles (PNPs) capable of excitation energy transfer (EET) mechanism. Chapter 6 is focused on the realization of photo-switchable systems based on azobenzene derivatives-functionalized SiNCs. These organic-inorganic hybrid materials were studied to possibly obtain a new light-driven response of SiNCs. In the end, chapter 7 reports the activity I followed in America, at The University of Texas at Austin, in the laboratory led by the professor Brian Korgel. Here I studied and compared the properties of high temperature hydrosilylated SiNCs and room temperature, radical promoted, hydrosilylated SiNCs.

Nuovo copoliestere alifatico del PBS da fonte rinnovabile biocompatibile e bioriassorbibile per impiego nell’ Ingegneria dei tessuti molli

L’enorme progresso nel campo della biologia cellulare ha consentito lo sviluppo di tecnologie per la ricostruzione in vitro di tessuti, definendo una nuova branca di scienze biomediche: l’ingegneria dei tessuti. Tra le sue numerose applicazioni, la riparazione del tessuto cardiaco infartuato rappresenta un’importante obiettivo. Tra i polimeri sintetici sperimentati per questa applicazione, il poli(butilene succinato) (PBS) rappresenta un ottimo candidato. Nonostante i promettenti risultati già ottenuti dal punto di vista di biodegradabilità e biocompatibilità, il PBS presenta proprietà meccaniche poco adatte a questo impiego: l’applicazione miocardica richiede particolari caratteristiche di modulo di Young (E) e un ritorno elastico comparabile a quello del miocardio. Al fine di conferire al PBS proprietà meccaniche funzionali all’MTE (Miocardial Tissue Engineering), in questa Tesi è stato sintetizzato e caratterizzato un nuovo copolimero statistico a base di PBS contenente subunità Pripol 1009, un diacido prodotto dalla Croda, biobased e biodegradabile. Sono stati preparati film attraverso pressofusione e scaffold tramite elettrofilatura. Oltre alla caratterizzazione molecolare, volta a determinare il peso molecolare, la struttura e la composizione, film e scaffold sono stati sottoposti anche ad analisi termica, diffrattometrica, meccanica e a studi di degradazione idrolitica in condizioni fisiologiche. I risultati ottenuti hanno evidenziato che l’inserimento di segmenti Pripol all’interno della catena polimerica ha portato, oltre che a un incremento della stabilità termo-ossidativa, anche a un importante miglioramento delle proprietà meccaniche: il materiale sintetizzato, sia sotto forma di film che di scaffold, possiede le caratteristiche di elastomero termoplastico che lo rendono adatto ad applicazioni nell’ingegneria tissutale. Da ultimo, rispetto al PBS, il copolimero statistico mostra una maggiore velocità di degradazione in condizioni fisiologiche.

Scaffold biocompatibile ottenuto da copoliestere multiblocco del PBS per applicazioni nell'ingegneria tissutale del miocardio

L'ingegneria tissutale è una branca delle scienze biomediche che negli ultimi anni si sta sviluppando come mezzo risolutivo per numerose problematiche mediche. Un'applicazione di particolare importanza è il trattamento di patologie cardiovascolari, le quali sono una delle principali cause di morte nel mondo. La mancanza di tessuto autologo e i problemi legati alle terapie cardiache, hanno incentivato numerosi studi basati sulla ricerca di biomateriali adeguati alla realizzazione di tessuti sintetici sostitutivi. In questo ambito, il polibutilene succinato (PBS) riveste sicuramente un ruolo importante. La sua biocompatibilità insieme alla biodegradabilità, non sono però sufficienti a renderlo idoneo ad applicazioni miocardiche, a causa dell’elevata rigidità. Allo scopo di migliorare le proprietà meccaniche del PBS nell’ottica di un’applicazione nel campo della rigenerazione del tessuto cardiaco, ma senza andare a detrimento delle proprietà già buone, il presente lavoro di Tesi propone un nuovo copolimero a base di PBS. Tale materiale è stato ottenuto tramite reazione di estensione di catena di un blocco hard (PBS) e un blocco soft (costituito da un copolimero statistico P(BSNS)). Il materiale ottenuto è stato analizzato sia sottoforma di film che di scaffold. Dopo una prima caratterizzazione molecolare (1H-NMR e GPC), il copolimero multiblocco è stato sottoposto anche ad analisi termica (DSC e TGA), diffrattometrica (WAXS) e meccanica. Si è evidenziato un miglioramento della stabilità termica e soprattutto una diminuzione del modulo elastico unitamente all’aumento dell’allungamento a rottura, in particolare nello scaffold. E’ stata inoltre valutata la velocità di degradazione idrolitica, evidenziandone una riduzione rispetto all’omopolimero. I risultati ottenuti confermano il miglioramento delle proprietà non soddisfacenti del PBS, indicando il copolimero multiblocco, oggetto della presenti Tesi, come materiale più idoneo alle applicazioni sopracitate.

Membrane elettrofilate biodegradabili a base di PBS e cheratina per il rilascio di farmaci ed ingegneria tissutale

Grazie agli sviluppi delle nanotecnologie biomedicali nell’ambito del rilascio controllato di farmaci e dell’ingegneria tissutale, sta diventando sempre più concreta la possibilità di superare i principali limiti della medicina tradizionale, basata nel primo caso su somministrazioni ripetute e a livello sistemico di principio attivo, e nel secondo caso sul trapianto (con relativi problemi di rigetto e carenza di donatori) e su trattamenti farmacologici non risolutivi. Tramite lo studio dei biomateriali e delle loro proprietà è invece possibile realizzare soluzioni ad hoc per l’ingegneria tissutale e per il rilascio controllato e mirato di farmaco. Nel presente studio, sono stati realizzati, mediante elettrofilatura, scaffolds a partire da blend fisiche di poli(butilene succinato) (PBS) e cheratina, a diversa composizione. Il primo è un polimero sintetico biocompatibile e approvato dalla Food and Drug Administration, con buone resistenza meccanica e lavorabilità, ma tempi di degradazione piuttosto lenti, a differenza della cheratina, polimero naturale, che risulta troppo rigido e difficile da processare, ma con buoni tempi di degradazione ed un’ottima biocompatibilità. Le blend sono state sottoposte a studi di miscibilità, mentre sui tappetini elettrofilati è stata effettuata una caratterizzazione morfologica, termica e meccanica. Inoltre, in vista di possibili applicazioni nell’ambito dell’ingegneria tissutale e del rilascio controllato di farmaco, si sono svolti anche test di biodegradazione in ambiente enzimatico e prove di biocompatibilità in vitro, nel primo caso, e studi di rilascio di diclofenac, comune antinfiammatorio, e test di adesione alla pelle, nel secondo caso. In conclusione, ogni tipo di indagine, seppur preliminare, ha comprovato che l’unione tra il PBS e la cheratina ha dato vita a nuove miscele facilmente processabili per potenziali utilizzi in due ambiti biomedicali di particolare interesse applicativo.

Synthesis and electronic properties of luminescent silicon nanocrystals and copper indium sulphide quantum dots

In the last decades, nanomaterials, and in particular semiconducting nanoparticles (or quantum dots), have gained increasing attention due to their controllable optical properties and potential applications. Silicon nanoparticles (also called silicon nanocrystals, SiNCs) have been extensively studied in the last years, due to their physical and chemical properties which render them a valid alternative to conventional quantum dots. During my PhD studies I have planned new synthetical routes to obtain SiNCs functionalised with molecules which could ameliorate the properties of the nanoparticle. However, this was certainly challenging, because SiNCs are very susceptible to many reagents and conditions that are often used in organic synthesis. They can be irreversibly quenched in the presence of alkalis, they can be damaged in the presence of oxidants, they can modify their optical properties in the presence of many nitrogen-containing compounds, metal complexes or simple organic molecules. If their surface is not well-passivated, the oxygen can introduce defect states, or they can aggregate and precipitate in several solvents. Therefore, I was able to functionalise SiNCs with different ligands: chromophores, amines, carboxylic acids, poly(ethylene)glycol, even ameliorating functionalisation strategies that already existed. This thesis will collect the experimental procedures used to synthesize silicon nanocrystals, the strategies adopted to functionalise effectively the nanoparticle with different types of organic molecules, and the characterisation of their surface, physical properties and luminescence (mostly photogenerated, but also electrochemigenerated). I also spent a period of 7 months in Leeds (UK), where I managed to learn how to synthesize other cadmium-free quantum dots made of copper, indium and sulphur (CIS QDs). During my last year of PhD, I focused on their functionalisation by ligand exchange techniques, yielding the first example of light-harvesting antenna based on those quantum dots. Part of this thesis is dedicated to them.

Tecnologia de nanocristais em fármacos

The use of poorly water soluble molecules in pharmaceutical area has grown. Since these molecules exhibit low oral bioavailability, they are not used in intravenous administrations. Therefore, it is necessary to develop their new formulations with the aim to increase their oral bioavailabilities as to enable intravenous applications. One of the few possibilities in achieving this is a nanonization process that can produce crystals smaller than 1 μm by high pressure homogenization and without use of organic solvents. This mini-review describes technical aspects of the nanocrystal production, morphological aspects (polymorphisms), the market relevance of the nanocrystals products that are already in clinical phase or at the market, as well as, perspectives for the near future.

Desenvolvimento, produção e caracterização de nanocristais de fármacos pouco solúveis

Poorly soluble drugs have low bioavailability, representing a major challenge for the pharmaceutical industry. Processing drugs into the nanosized range changes their physical properties, and these are being used in pharmaceutics to develop innovative formulations known as Nanocrystals. Use of nanocrystals to overcome the problem of low bioavailability, and their production using different techniques such as microfluidization or high pressure homogenization, was reviewed in this paper. Examples of drugs, cosmetics and nutraceutical ingredients were also discussed. These technologies are well established in the pharmaceutical industry and are approved by the Food and Drug Administration.

Effects of light-curing time on the cytotoxicity of a restorative composite resin on odontoblast-like cells

This in vitro study evaluated the cytotoxicity of an experimental restorative composite resin subjected to different light-curing regimens. METHODS: Forty round-shaped specimens were prepared and randomly assigned to four experimental groups (n=10), as follows: in Group 1, no light-curing; in Groups 2, 3 and 4, the composite resin specimens were light-cured for 20, 40 or 60 s, respectively. In Group 5, filter paper discs soaked in 5 µL PBS were used as negative controls. The resin specimens and paper discs were placed in wells of 24-well plates in which the odontoblast-like cells MDPC-23 (30,000 cells/cm²) were plated and incubated in a humidified incubator with 5% CO2 and 95% air at 37ºC for 72 h. The cytotoxicity was evaluated by the cell metabolism (MTT assay) and cell morphology (SEM). The data were analyzed statistically by Kruskal-Wallis and Mann-Whitney tests (p<0.05). RESULTS: In G1, cell metabolism decreased by 86.2%, indicating a severe cytotoxicity of the non-light-cured composite resin. On the other hand, cell metabolism decreased by only 13.3% and 13.5% in G2 and G3, respectively. No cytotoxic effects were observed in G4 and G5. In G1, only a few round-shaped cells with short processes on their cytoplasmic membrane were observed. In the other experimental groups as well as in control group, a number of spindle-shaped cells with long cytoplasmic processes were found. CONCLUSION: Regardless of the photoactivation time used in the present investigation, the experimental composite resin presented mild to no toxic effects to the odontoblast-like MDPC-23 cells. However, intense cytotoxic effects occurred when no light-curing was performed.

Immunomodulatory effects of recombinant BCG expressing pertussis toxin on TNF-alpha and IL-10 in a bladder cancer model

Background: Since successful treatment of superficial bladder cancer with BCG requires proper induction of Th1 immunity, we have developed a rBCG-S1PT strain that induced a stronger cellular immune response than BCG. This preclinical study was designed to compare the modulatory effects of BCG and rBCG-S1PT on bladder TNF-alpha and IL-10 expression and to evaluate antitumour activity. Methods: For Experiment I, the MB49 bladder cancer cell line was used in C57BL/6 mice. Chemical cauterization of the bladder was performed to promote intravesical tumor implantation. Mice were treated by intravesical instillation with BCG, rBCG-S1PT or PBS once a week for four weeks. After 35 days the bladders were removed and weighed. TNF-PBS groups. This suggests that rBCG could be a useful substitute for wild-type BCG and that the potential modulation between TNF-alpha and IL-10 cytokine productions may have therapeutic value.

The Ultrastructural Study of Tumorigenic Cells Using Nanobiomarkers

Despite recent advances, patients with malignant brain tumors still have a poor prognosis. Glioblastoma (WHO grade 4 astrocytoma), the most malignant brain tumor, represents 50% of all astrocytomas, with a median survival rate of <1 year. It is, therefore, extremely important to search for new diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for patients with glioblastoma. This study describes the application of superparamagnetic nano-particles of iron oxide, as well as monoclonal antibodies, of immunophenotypic significance, conjoined to quantum dots for the ultrastructural assessment of glioblastoma cells. For this proposal, an immunophenotypic study by flow cytometry was carried out, followed by transmission electron microscopy analysis. The process of tumor cell labeling using nanoparticles can successfully contribute to the identification of tumorigenic cells and consequently for better understanding of glioblastoma genesis and recurrence. In addition, this method may help further studies in tumor imaging, diagnosis, and prognostic markers detection.