Seawater carbonate chemistry, survival, metamorphosis and respiration rate of coral Acropora digitifera during experiments, 2011

Ocean acidification may negatively impact the early life stages of some marine invertebrates including corals. Although reduced growth of juvenile corals in acidified seawater has been reported, coral larvae have been reported to demonstrate some level of tolerance to reduced pH. We hypothesize that the observed tolerance of coral larvae to low pH may be partly explained by reduced metabolic rates in acidified seawater because both calcifying and non-calcifying marine invertebrates could show metabolic depression under reduced pH in order to enhance their survival. In this study, after 3-d and 7-d exposure to three different pH levels (8.0, 7.6, and 7.3), we found that the oxygen consumption of Acropora digitifera larvae tended to be suppressed with reduced pH, although a statistically significant difference was not observed between pH conditions. Larval metamorphosis was also observed, confirming that successful recruitment is impaired when metamorphosis is disrupted, despite larval survival. Results also showed that the metamorphosis rate significantly decreased under acidified seawater conditions after both short (2 h) and long (7 d) term exposure. These results imply that acidified seawater impacts larval physiology, suggesting that suppressed metabolism and metamorphosis may alter the dispersal potential of larvae and subsequently reduce the resilience of coral communities in the near future as the ocean pH decreases.

Estudio y desarrollo de sensores de fibra óptica para detección de vibraciones en ductos ascendentes submarinos

En esta tesis doctoral se describe el trabajo de investigación enfocado al estudio y desarrollo de sensores de fibra óptica para la detección de presión, flujo y vibraciones en ductos ascendentes submarinos utilizados en la extracción y transporte de hidrocarburos, con el objetivo de aplicarlos en los campos de explotación de aguas profundas en el Golfo de México pertenecientes a la Industria Petrolera Mexicana. El trabajo se ha enfocado al estudio y desarrollo de sensores ópticos cuasi distribuidos y distribuidos. En especial se ha profundizado en el uso y aplicación de las redes de Bragg (FBG) y de reflectómetros ópticos en el dominio del tiempo sensible a la fase (φ-OTDR). Los sensores de fibra óptica son especialmente interesantes para estas aplicaciones por sus ventajosas características como su inmunidad a interferencias electromagnéticas, capacidad de multiplexado, fiabilidad para trabajar en ambientes hostiles, altas temperaturas, altas presiones, ambientes salino-corrosivos, etc. Además, la fibra óptica no solo es un medio sensor sino que puede usarse como medio de transmisión. Se ha realizado un estudio del estado del arte y las ventajas que presentan los sensores ópticos puntuales, cuasi-distribuidos y distribuidos con respecto a los sensores convencionales. Se han estudiado y descrito los interrogadores de redes de Bragg y se ha desarrollado un método de calibración útil para los interrogadores existentes en el mercado, consiguiendo incertidumbres en la medida de la longitud de onda menores de ± 88 nm e incertidumbres relativas (la mas interesante en el campo de los sensores) menores de ±3 pm. Centrándose en la aplicación de las redes de Bragg en la industria del petróleo, se ha realizado un estudio en detalle del comportamiento que presentan las FBGs en un amplio rango de temperaturas de -40 ºC a 500 oC. Como resultado de este estudio se han evaluado las diferencias en los coeficientes de temperatura en diversos tramos de mas mismas, así como para diferentes recubrimientos protectores. En especial se ha encontrado y evaluado las diferencias de los diferentes recubrimientos en el intervalo de temperaturas entre -40 ºC y 60 ºC. En el caso del intervalo de altas temperaturas, entre 100 ºC y 500 ºC, se ha medido y comprobado el cambio uniforme del coeficiente de temperatura en 1pm/ºC por cada 100 ºC de aumento de temperatura, en redes independientemente del fabricante de las mismas. Se ha aplicado las FBG a la medición de manera no intrusiva de la presión interna en una tubería y a la medición del caudal de un fluido en una tubería, por la medida de diferencia de presión entre dos puntos de la misma. Además se ha realizado un estudio de detección de vibraciones en tuberías con fluidos. Finalmente, se ha implementado un sistema de detección distribuida de vibraciones aplicable a la detección de intrusos en las proximidades de los ductos, mediante un φ-OTDR. En este sistema se ha estudiado el efecto negativo de la inestabilidad de modulación que limita la detección de vibraciones distribuidas, su sensibilidad y su alcance. ABSTRACT This thesis describes the research work focused for the study and development of on optical fiber sensors for detecting pressure, flow and vibration in subsea pipes used in the extraction and transportation of hydrocarbons, in order to apply them in deepwater fields in the Gulf of Mexico belonging to the Mexican oil industry. The work has focused on the study and development of optical sensors distributed and quasi distributed. Especially was done on the use and application of fiber Bragg grating (FBG) and optical reflectometers time domain phase sensitive (φ-OTDR). The optical fiber sensors especially are interesting for these applications for their advantageous characteristics such as immunity to electromagnetic interference, multiplexing capability, reliability to work in harsh environments, high temperatures, high pressures, corrosive saline environments, etc. Furthermore, the optical fiber is not only a sensor means it can be used as transmission medium. We have performed a study of the state of the art and the advantages offered by optical sensors point, quasi-distributed and distributed over conventional sensors. Have studied and described interrogators Bragg grating and has developed a calibration method for interrogators useful for the existing interrogators in the market, resulting uncertainty in the measurement of the wavelength of less than ± 0.17 nm and uncertainties (the more interesting in the field of sensors) less than ± 3 pm. Focusing on the application of the Bragg gratings in the oil industry, has been studied in detail the behavior of the FBGs in a wide range of temperatures from -40 °C to 500 oC. As a result of this study we have evaluated the difference in temperature coefficients over various sections of the same, as well as different protective coatings. In particular evaluated and found the differences coatings in the range of temperatures between -40 º C and 60 º C. For the high temperature range between 20 ° C and 500 ° C, has been measured and verified the uniform change of the temperature coefficient at 1pm / ° C for each 100 ° C increase in temperature, in networks regardless of manufacturer thereof. FBG is applied to the non-intrusive measurement of internal pressure in a pipeline and measuring flow of a fluid in a pipe, by measuring the pressure difference between two points thereof. Therefore, has also made a study of detecting vibrations in pipes with fluids. Finally, we have implemented a distributed sensing system vibration applied to intrusion detection in the vicinity of the pipelines, by φ-OTDR. In this system we have studied the negative effect of modulation instability limits the distributed vibration detection, sensitivity and scope.

Wavelength monitoring with semiconductor laser amplifiers

The semiconductor laser diodes that are typically used in applications of optical communications, when working as amplifiers, present under certain conditions optical bistability, which is characterized by abruptly switching between two different output states and an associated hysteresis cycle. This bistable behavior is strongly dependent on the frequency detuning between the frequency of the external optical signal that is injected into the semiconductor laser amplifier and its own emission frequency. This means that small changes in the wavelength of an optical signal applied to a laser amplifier causes relevant changes in the characteristics of its transfer function in terms of the power requirements to achieve bistability and the width of the hysteresis. This strong dependence in the working characteristics of semiconductor laser amplifiers on frequency detuning suggest the use of this kind of devices in optical sensing applications for optical communications, such as the detection of shifts in the emission wavelength of a laser, or detect possible interference between adjacent channels in DWDM (Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing) optical communication networks